Greenhouse gas sequestration in poultry Strategies for sustainable production and environmental impact mitigation

Authors: Prantic Kumar Goswami, Md Salahuddin, Ahmed A.A. Abdel-Wareth, Jayant Lohakare

Abstract

Intensive poultry production is a significant contributor to agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, accounting for roughly 8 % of the GHG emissions from 14.5 % of the global livestock sector. The main sources are feed production (often over half of total emissions), manure management, and on-farm energy use, which together releases substantial carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. The consequences of climate change, including elevated temperatures and severe weather, threaten poultry health and productivity, emphasizing the necessity for mitigation efforts. This review integrates current understanding of GHG emissions from poultry production systems and critically examines mitigation strategies that support sustainable low-carbon poultry farming. Significant strategies emphasized include circular economic principles (nutrient recycling, waste-to-energy conversion) and the integration of renewable energy sources (solar, biogas) to reduce the sector's carbon footprint. Feed-based interventions, including precision nutrition and alternative protein sources (microalgae), can lower emissions by improving feed efficiency and reducing nitrogen excretion. Improved manure management techniques like aerobic composting, anaerobic digestion, and biochar application mitigate methane and nitrous oxide release while enhancing nutrient recovery. Technological innovations in precision farming, such as IoT-enabled monitoring and AI-driven decision support, optimize feeding, housing conditions, and resource use, cutting waste and emissions. Genetic selection for feed-efficient and climate-resilient poultry breeds offers further long-term reductions in GHG emissions. The comprehensive implementation of these strategies, along with supportive legislation and ongoing research, is crucial for overcoming economic and practical challenges. This holistic strategy will facilitate the poultry industry's transformation towards a sustainable, climate-resilient, low-emission future.

Introduction

By 2050, the global population is expected to surpass 9.7 billion, placing immense pressure on food systems to meet rising demands for safe, affordable, and sustainable nutrition (Oluwole et al., 2023). Poultry production has emerged as a cornerstone of global food and nutrition security due to its cost-effectiveness, high feed efficiency, and capacity to deliver high-quality protein and essential micronutrients. From both commercial and subsistence perspectives, poultry meat and eggs are dietary staples in developed and developing nations alike (Korver, 2023). The poultry sector accounts for approximately 40 % of total global meat output (Bist et al., 2024), which is increasing every year.

Although poultry production has a lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emission intensity per kilogram of product than ruminant livestock such as beef and dairy, its environmental significance has increased markedly due to rapid global expansion. Over the past three decades, poultry has been the fastest-growing livestock sector, resulting in rising absolute emissions despite substantial gains in feed efficiency (Kheiralipour et al., 2024). Consequently, intensive poultry production now accounts for approximately 8 % of total GHG emissions from the global livestock sector, driven primarily by feed cultivation, manure storage and handling, and on-farm energy use (Attia et al., 2024). Feed production represents the most carbon-intensive component, contributing more than 60 % of total emissions per kilogram of chicken meat produced. Life-cycle assessments estimate that producing 1 kg of chicken meat generates approximately 4.08 kg CO₂-equivalent, showing that even highly efficient poultry systems carry non-trivial environmental costs (Kang et al., 2025). Moreover, increasing global meat demand and climate change related stressors including rising temperatures, unpredictable weather patterns, and more frequent heat events further exacerbate production inefficiencies, compromise bird health and reproductive performance, and pose long-term risks to the sustainability of poultry farming systems (Oke et al., 2024).

Considering these challenges, a shift toward sustainable, climate-resilient poultry production is both necessary and increasingly urgent. A wide range of innovative solutions is being developed and tested, with many rooted in the circular economic framework. These include practices such as nutrient recovery through composting or anaerobic digestion, bioenergy generation from poultry litter, and the adoption of alternative protein sources for feed, such as microalgae, insect meal, and fermented agricultural byproducts that offer lower GHG footprints compared to conventional inputs. Complementing with these biological and rapid advances in digital agriculture have brought transformative capabilities through emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled sensor systems (Bhattad et al., 2025). These technologies facilitate real-time monitoring of farm conditions, predictive health diagnostics, precision feeding, and optimized resource management, thereby reducing emissions and enhancing production efficiency (Balasundram et al., 2023). Despite their promise, however, the widespread adoption of such innovations remains limited by practical constraints including high initial investment costs, lack of infrastructure, insufficient farmer training, and weak alignment between policy and practice. These barriers are particularly pronounced in smallholder systems and developing regions, where resource access and institutional support are often inadequate (Gržinić et al., 2023; Bist et al., 2024).

This review aims to provide a comprehensive synthesis of current knowledge on GHG emissions associated with poultry production and to evaluate practical mitigation strategies based on circular economy principles and new technologies. Key focus areas include feed-based interventions, manure management innovations, housing and ventilation modifications, and biological or mechanical carbon sequestration solutions. By integrating interdisciplinary insights from animal nutrition, environmental science, microbiology, and agricultural engineering, this article seeks to guide researchers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders toward a sustainable transformation of the poultry sector that minimizes emissions, enhances resilience, and ensures food system sustainability in the face of escalating global challenges.

Within this framework, the scope of the review is intentionally defined to focus on greenhouse gas emissions arising from poultry production systems and their immediate upstream inputs, including feed production, housing, energy use, and manure management. This production stage system boundary was selected because it represents the largest and most directly manageable share of poultry related GHG emissions and offers the greatest potential for actionable mitigation through nutritional, technological, and management interventions. Downstream stages such as processing, distribution, retail, and consumption were not explicitly assessed, as their emission profiles are highly context-specific and largely influenced by supply-chain logistics and consumer behavior. Nevertheless, several mitigation pathways discussed in this review particularly circular economy approaches, manure valorization, biochar application, and CO₂ utilization for microalgae-based feed production establish direct linkages between poultry production outputs and downstream environmental benefits. This boundary definition ensures analytical clarity while maintaining practical relevance for near- and medium-term emission reduction strategies in poultry farming systems.

Review framework and literature selection

This manuscript follows a structured narrative review approach to synthesize current knowledge on greenhouse gas emissions, mitigation, and sequestration strategies in poultry production systems. Peer-reviewed literature was identified using major scientific databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar. Emphasis was placed on studies published primarily within the last decade, with seminal earlier studies included where necessary to establish mechanistic or conceptual foundations.

Literature selection prioritized studies that (i) explicitly addressed CO₂, CH₄, or N₂O emissions associated with poultry production, (ii) evaluated mitigation or sequestration strategies applicable at the production or input level, and (iii) provided experimental, life cycle, or systems-based evidence relevant to commercial or semi-commercial poultry operations. Review articles, life cycle assessments, and high-quality experimental studies were integrated to ensure both breadth and depth across nutritional, technological, and circular economy-based mitigation approaches.

Sources of GHG emissions in poultry farming

GHGs are atmospheric compounds that trap infrared radiation, leading to the greenhouse effect and contributing significantly to global climate change (Filonchyk et al., 2024). The primary GHGs associated with poultry production systems are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O). Fig. 1 provides an overview of the primary sources of GHGs emission within these systems. Although these gases play a role in regulating Earth's climate, increased levels resulting from human activities, including fossil fuel use, agriculture, and industrial processes, have enhanced the greenhouse effect and contributed to global temperature rise and changes in climate patterns (Kirk-Davidoff, 2018). The poultry sector’s contribution to GHG emissions, while lower than ruminant livestock, remains environmentally significant and is expected to increase with the intensification of production systems (Attia et al., 2024).Figure 1Schematic representation of the major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in poultry production systems. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is generated primarily from fossil fuel combustion, electricity consumption, transportation, hatchery operations, and bird respiration. Feed production further contributes to CO₂ emissions. Methane (CH₄) is released through enteric emissions, methanogenesis, and anaerobic decomposition of manure. Nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions primarily originate from the manufacture and subsequent field application of fertilizers in crop production. Figure created with BioRender (www.biorender.com).Figure dummy alt text

Carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions. The livestock sector is a substantial contributor to global GHG emissions, accounting for approximately 7.1 billion tons of CO₂-equivalent annually, which constitutes about 14.5 % of total anthropogenic emissions (Gerber et al., 2013). Over the past three decades, emissions from this sector have increased by 21 %, with projections by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) indicating an additional 6 % rise by 2030, driven by intensification and growing global demand for animal protein (FAO, 2023). A significant portion of these emissions stems from the management of livestock manure, which releases potent non-CO2 gases, particularly methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O), across various stages, including animal housing, feed storage, and field application. Collectively, emissions from manure management contribute nearly 10 % of global non-CO₂ GHG emissions, with direct implications for atmospheric warming (Liu et al., 2011; Møller et al., 2022;). In poultry systems, CO₂ emissions primarily originate from fossil fuel combustion and electricity usage associated with farm operations. These include the energy demands of automated feeding systems, ventilation units, climate control equipment, and feed transportation, all of which are integral to modern intensive production systems (Olesen et al., 2006; Chianese et al., 2009). Notably, CO₂ released via animal respiration is typically excluded from emission inventories, as it is considered carbon-neutral in the biological cycle (Zervas, 2016). However, emissions associated with crop production for poultry feed, especially cereals such as corn and soy are substantial, encompassing emissions from land-use change, agrochemical inputs, irrigation, and long-distance transportation (Rózewicz et al., 2019). Given that feed production often constitutes the largest share of poultry’s environmental footprint, it remains a critical area for intervention and further research.

Temperature regulation within poultry houses also constitutes a major source of GHG emissions. Birds, particularly chicks, are highly sensitive to thermal stress due to limited thermoregulation capabilities during early growth stages. As such, maintaining optimal indoor temperatures often requires intensive energy use for heating during cold seasons and cooling during hotter months, thereby increasing the carbon footprint of production facilities (Kapica et al., 2015). This is further exacerbated by emissions from hatchery operations, which rely heavily on electricity and climate-controlled systems. Estimates suggest that hatcheries alone account for 12–23 % of total energy-related emissions in the poultry value chain (Usubharatana & Phungrassami, 2017). Moreover, international trade in poultry meat adds a substantial transportation-related CO₂ burden. Long-distance shipping and logistics operations, particularly those involving marine freight and refrigerated containers, contribute significantly CO₂ emissions annually to global poultry meat trade routes (Gerber et al., 2007). These emissions are inherently linked to transportation distances and fuel types used, underscoring the need for localized feed production and processing infrastructure to minimize supply chain emissions.

Methane (CH₄) emissions. Methane emissions, although comparatively lower in poultry systems than in ruminant livestock, represent a non-negligible contributor to the overall (GHG) footprint of intensive poultry production. As a monogastric species, poultry emits minimal CH₄ via enteric fermentation; however, significant emissions arise during anaerobic decomposition of manure under storage conditions where oxygen is limited. The microbial breakdown of volatile solids by methanogenic archaea, particularly in deep pits, lagoons, or sealed tanks, can be substantial, especially under warm and moist conditions that enhance methanogenic activity (Symeon et al., 2025). The methane production potential of poultry manure is influenced by multiple factors, including species type, age, feed composition, housing system, and production stage. On average, a single bird generates approximately 0.08 kg of feces per day (Chávez-Fuentes et al., 2017), which is rich in organic carbon, nitrogen, and water, which are key precursors for methanogenesis and nitrous oxide (N₂O) formation. Although enteric emissions dominate methane output in ruminants, the confined storage systems typical of poultry operations create sustained anaerobic environments, making manure a concentrated source of CH₄ (Grossi et al., 2019).

Temperature and storage duration are primary environmental drivers influencing the rate of CH₄ emissions. Elevated ambient temperatures accelerate methanogenesis by enhancing microbial enzymatic activity, while extended storage periods increase the temporal window for fermentation processes (Konkol et al., 2023). Additionally, protein-rich diets common in high-performance broiler and layer rations elevate nitrogen concentrations in excreta, indirectly promoting microbial growth and contributing to higher CH₄ and N₂O emissions during decomposition (Cappelaere et al., 2021). Poultry manure is often stored for several weeks or months prior to land application, composting, or treatment, further exacerbating its emission potential if unmanaged. A suite of mitigation strategies has been proposed to reduce CH₄ emissions from poultry manure, with varying degrees of technological and economic feasibility. These include aerobic composting to limit anaerobic zones, frequent manure removal to reduce residence time, dietary manipulation to lower nitrogen output, and the use of chemical inhibitors or biochar to suppress methanogenic microbial pathways (Ngo et al., 2023; Konkol et al., 2023; Symeon et al., 2025). Among these, anaerobic digestion has garnered particular attention as a circular economy solution that captures methane as biogas for on-site energy generation, while simultaneously stabilizing waste and reducing environmental emissions.

Managing methane emissions from poultry systems is therefore essential not only for GHG mitigation but also for improving on-farm air quality and reducing odor pollution, which are increasingly scrutinized under environmental compliance frameworks. As global poultry production scales upward to meet rising protein demands, integrating precision manure management strategies and methane-reducing technologies into operational protocols becomes critical for aligning productivity goals with climate resilience.

Nitrous oxide *(*N2O) emissions. N₂O emissions in poultry production primarily originate from intensive nitrogen use in feed cultivation and the application of animal manures to croplands (Gerber et al., 2013). Fertilizer use alone accounts for slightly more than 35 % of total farm-related emissions (Gerber et al., 2013). It is essential to distinguish between synthetic and organic fertilizers, not only for emission regulation but also for adopting more sustainable nutrient management practices (Gržinić et al., 2023). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2023) estimates that synthetic fertilizer manufacturing contributes about 0.7 % of global GHG emissions, equivalent to 0.41 Gt CO₂-equivalent annually. Once applied to soil, excess nitrogen undergoes microbially driven nitrification and ammonium (NH₄⁺), derived either directly from fertilizers or from redeposited ammonia (NH₃) volatilized during manure and litter management, or organic N is oxidized to nitrate (NO₃⁻) and nitrite (NO₂⁻) under aerobic conditions, and these intermediates are subsequently reduced to N₂ or, under incomplete reduction, to N₂O and nitric oxide (NO) (Zhu et al., 2013; EPA, 2020). Although ammonia (NH₃) itself is not a greenhouse gas, its volatilization and subsequent redeposition represent an important indirect pathway for N₂O formation in poultry systems. This soil nitrogen cycling also links directly to manure-derived emissions, as poultry litter rich in uric acid and urea provides a rapid substrate for nitrification denitrification processes leading to N₂O formation.

N₂O is a potent GHG with approximately 273 times the global warming potential of CO₂ over a 100-year period and also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion (Li et al., 2024). Poultry litter use in temperate climates can increase soil N₂O emissions by up to 40 % compared with unfertilized controls. Meta-analyses indicate that manure-amended soils emit between 1.2 and 6.4 kg N₂O–N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, underscoring the sector’s substantial role in nitrogen-related climate impacts (Shakoor et al., 2021).

Effective mitigation requires integrated nutrient and manure management tailored to poultry systems. Strategies include precision nutrient application, use of nitrification inhibitors, and timed manure incorporation to minimize nitrogen losses. Composting, anaerobic digestion, and manure acidification have each demonstrated N₂O emission reductions of 25–50 % under optimized conditions (Thorman et al., 2020). Collectively, these practices enhance nitrogen utilization efficiency, reduce the environmental footprint of poultry operations, and strengthen climate resilience as emission standards become increasingly stringent.

Strategies for GHG sequestration in poultry farming

Feed-based mitigation strategies. Numerous studies have indicated that feed production represents a significant contribution to GHG emissions, with reported rates in the literature ranging from 45 % to 93.7 % (Andretta et al., 2021). Reducing dietary crude protein (CP) levels while supplementing with essential amino acids has emerged as an effective strategy to minimize nitrogen (N) excretion in poultry. A meta-analysis indicated that a 1 % reduction in CP could decrease daily N excretion by approximately 10 %, without adversely affecting growth performance (De Rauglaudre et al., 2023). Similarly, Kareem et al. (2025) found that reducing CP by up to 2 %, supplemented with methionine, lysine, and threonine, maintained broiler performance and profitability while reducing environmental N2 emissions. However, excessive reduction in CP can impair nutrient digestibility and intestinal morphology, leading to decreased growth rates (Son et al., 2024). Consequently, achieving an accurate formulation that balances crude protein and amino acid supplementation is essential for enhancing nitrogen utilization and reducing environmental impact. Broiler diets with reduced CP content offer environmental benefits by decreasing nitrogen and ammonia emissions, addressing the growing concern of nitrogen pollution.

The integration of feed additives such as enzymes, probiotics, and essential oils into poultry diets has shown significant promise in enhancing nutrient digestibility and reducing GHG emissions (Wang et al., 2024a). These additives not only improve animal health and performance but also contribute to environmental sustainability by mitigating emissions associated with poultry production (Yusriani et al., 2025). Recent investigations involving layer chicks administered mushroom stem powder indicated a decrease in GHG emissions from excreta (Stamps et al., 2025; Abdel-Wareth et al., 2025). Recent advancements in nano formulations have significantly improved the stability and bioavailability of essential oils, thereby facilitating their application in poultry diets (Movahedi et al., 2024). Almeldin et al. (2024a) demonstrated that dietary supplementation with green iron oxide nanoparticles (Nano-Fe) improved broiler growth and feed efficiency while reducing ammonia emissions, highlighting their potential to enhance poultry productivity and lower environmental impact. Almeldin et al. (2024b) evaluated the use of green iron nanoparticles (Nano-Fe) combined with the algae Halimeda opuntia in broiler diets under heat stress. The supplementation significantly reduced ammonia excretion from litter while improving growth performance, feed efficiency, and carcass traits. By lowering ammonia emissions, this approach demonstrates a practical strategy to mitigate environmental impact and enhance sustainability in poultry production under challenging climatic conditions. A review of the literature provides valuable insights into how different feed additives mitigate GHG emissions, as summarized in Table 1.Table 1Effect of different feed/additives on GHG emissions reduction.Table 1 dummy alt textFeed/Additive TypesSpeciesGHG Emission Reduction EffectReferencesSpecialty feed ingredients (phytase, amino acids)BroilersSupplementing broiler diets can reduce CO₂-equivalent emissions by up to 54 %, cut eutrophication potential by 49 %, and lower acidification by as much as 79 %. Globally, this strategy could save an estimated 136–146 million metric tons of CO₂-equivalent emissions by 2050.Kebreab et al., 2016Larvae meal (Black Soldier Fly)LayersBroilersCould potentially have lower GHG emissions compared to conventional high-protein feed ingredients (soybean, fishmeal) in terms of energy and land uses.Bosch et al., 2019BSFLNo dataUsing BSF larvae to treat organic waste produces 47 times less GHG than traditional composting.Mertenat et al., 2019Yucca schidigera saponinsBroilerYucca schidigera extract (YE) (1 ml/20 L drinking water) significantly reduced NH₃ emissions by 66 % at week 4 compared to control (p < 0.05)Saeed et al., 2018; Patoary et al., 2020Yucca schidigera powderHy-Line W36 laying hensA 100 ppm Yucca schidigera powder reduced NH₃ emissions by 44 % (Day 1), 28 % (Day 2), and 14 % (Day 3) compared to 0, 50, and 200 ppm treatments (p < 0.05)Chepete et al., 2012YGF251 (herbal extract blend)LayersDietary supplementation with 0.15 % YGF251 (herbal extract) in laying hens significantly reduced excreta ammonia emissions (p < 0.01, linear trend); no effect observed on hydrogen sulfide or mercaptan emissions.Dang et al., 2021Essential oils (thymol, eugenol, piperine) + proteaseRoss male BroilerEssential oils (EO) significantly reduced ammonia and thus N₂O emissions in broilers, with even greater reductions when combined with protease (EO × protease interaction, p = 0.043).Park and Kim, 2018Oregano Essential Oil and Bacillus subtilisCobb broiler chicksIndirect reduction via improved feed efficiency, enhanced growth, and stronger immunity; leads to lower resource use and emissions per kg of meat.El-Sayed et al*., 2024Yeast and garlic extract mixture (YGM)Ross 308 broilersInclusion of YGM in broiler diets significantly reduced CO₂ emissions (P = 0.006) in treated groups but no significant difference in noxious gas emissions (NH3, H2S, methyl mercaptans, and acetic acid)Biswas and Kim, 2023Azolla pinnata*Backyard chickens50 % Azolla Pinnata inclusion in feed reduced total Global Warming Potential by 28.47 % (from 9,820.61 to 7,024.83 kg CO₂-eq/1,000 birds); CO₂ reduced by 35 %, N₂O by 22.32 %, and CH₄ by 4.74 % from life cycle assessment.Espino and Bellotindos, 2020Fermented agricultural byproductsBroilersFermented rapeseed cake (FRC) inclusion at 15 % in broiler diet reduced total methanogen count by 65.8 % (p < 0.001) and methane production by 20.83 % (p = 0.027) vs. control; also decreased total gas (p = 0.003) and ammonia (p < 0.001)Gao et al., 2020Reduced crude protein dietMeat chickenReduced crude protein diet (CP19.8 %) lowered NH₃ emissions by 27 % per bird (from 10.6 g to 7.7 g NH₃/bird; p < 0.05); minor reductions in N₂O and CH₄ not statistically significant; total GHG mitigation 11 t CO₂-eq/year per million birds.Wiedemann et al., 2016GHG: Greenhouse gas; BSFL: Black Soldier Fly Larvae; YGF251 is an herbal mixture of Shady Jerusalemsage (Phlomis umbrosa Turcz), Wilford Swallowwort (Cynanchum wilfordii Hemsley), Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc), and Balloonflower root (Platycodi Radix)

Probiotics and enzymes have been effective in modulating gut microbiota and enhancing digestive enzyme activity, leading to improved nutrient absorption and reduced feed conversion ratios. The synergistic use of these additives offers a sustainable alternative to antibiotic growth promoters, aligning with consumer demand for antibiotic-free poultry products. Exogenous enzymes like phytase, xylanase, and protease enhance nutrient absorption and decrease undigested substrates in excreta, which are used as precursors for N₂O emissions. A study conducted by Alshelmani et al. (2024) demonstrated that the inclusion of multi-enzyme supplementation in broiler diets led to a reduction in nitrogen excretion and ammonia emissions by more than 20 %, emphasizing their significance in environmental mitigation efforts.

Moreover, precision feeding technologies have revolutionized poultry nutrition by enabling real-time adjustments to feed composition based on birds' specific requirements. These systems utilize sensors and automated feeders to deliver tailored diets, reducing nutrient oversupply and minimizing waste. The integration of metabolomics into precision nutrition enhances the understanding of metabolic responses to dietary changes, paving the way for the development of customized feeding strategies. These methods enhance feed efficiency while promoting environmental sustainability by reducing nitrogen excretion and GHG emissions. Modern precision feeding systems incorporate real-time sensors, automated feeders, and IoT platforms to track the performance of individual birds and dynamically modify their rations. This reduces the excess of nutrients, a key factor in nitrogen excretion and the resulting emissions of N₂O-one of the most powerful GHGs in poultry systems (Moss et al., 2021). Precision nutrition, also known as precision feeding, is characterized as providing the right amount of feed with the right nutrients to the right individual animals at the right time (Zuidhof, 2020). By minimizing nitrogen excretion, these systems help lower emissions of nitrous oxide and ammonia from feces and bedding materials.

The combination of mechanistic models and machine learning significantly enhances the accuracy of feeding decisions, ensuring that productivity aligns with sustainability objectives (Leishman, 2023). Moreover, precision feeding contributes a significant role in reducing nutrient excretion, especially concerning nitrogen and phosphorus, which are known as major factors in water pollution. Providing animals with accurate nutrient amounts, precision feeding significantly reduces the over-excretion of these substances into the environment, thus improving the negative impacts on water quality and aquatic ecosystems (Huis and Oonincx, 2017). In livestock farming, precision livestock farming methods play a significant role in reducing GHG emissions by improving animal health, welfare, and production efficiency, ultimately resulting in lower emissions per unit of output. Real-time monitoring of animal conditions through sensors and automated systems enables prompt interventions that enhance fertility, yield, and health, thereby reducing CH₄ and N₂O emissions associated with inefficient livestock production (Ferguson et al., 2024). The combination of remote sensing, global positioning systems (GPS), geographic information systems (GIS), drones, and IoT devices significantly improves environmental monitoring and management. This integration facilitates enhanced decision-making and resource optimization for GHG mitigation (Aliyev et al., 2024). The integration of these technologies promotes sustainable land use, enhances soil carbon retention, and reduces emissions associated with soil management practices (Getahun et al., 2024).

Alternative protein sources and agricultural by-products have been explored to enhance sustainability and reduce nitrogenous waste in poultry diets. Abdel-Wareth et al. (2025) demonstrated that brown mushroom stem waste could partially replace soybean meal in layer chick diets without compromising growth performance, nutrient digestibility, and simultaneously reducing the environmental footprint of feed production. Similarly, the utilization of white mushroom stem powder showed improvements in layer chick performance and nutrient digestibility (Stamps et al., 2025). Algae-based protein sources, particularly Spirulina platensis and Halimeda opuntia (Almeldin et al., 2024a), have been reported to enhance immune function, modulate gut microbiota, and improve feed efficiency while minimizing nitrogen excretion (Abdel-Wareth et al., 2024; Salahuddin et al., 2025). These eco-friendly feed ingredients contribute to lowering ammonia emissions, promoting nutrient retention, and supporting sustainable poultry farming under challenging climatic conditions.

Nanoparticles of essential minerals and trace elements, including zinc and selenium, also play a key role in mitigating environmental emissions. Abdel-Wareth et al. (2024) and Ali et al. (2024) reported that dietary supplementation with zinc oxide and selenium nanoparticles improved nutrient utilization, growth performance, and physiological health in rabbits and broilers, while reducing nitrogenous waste excretion. Similarly, bioactive lipid compounds derived from Acacia nilotica have shown antioxidant, antimicrobial, and immune-modulating effects, which enhance nutrient retention and reduce environmental impact from excreta (Abdel-Wareth and Lohakare, 2023).

Moreover, accurate quantification of methane and ammonia emissions at the livestock sector level is essential for assessing environmental impact and designing mitigation strategies. Maze et al. (2024) estimated methane emissions from various livestock categories in Egypt between 1989 and 2021, demonstrating that enteric fermentation and manure management are significant contributors to GHG emissions. Integrating precision feeding, advanced feed additives, and IoT-based monitoring systems can collectively reduce ammonia and methane emissions, enhancing the sustainability of poultry and livestock production systems.

Finally, the integration of sustainable feed sources, nanoparticles, and algae can be considered a holistic approach to reducing environmental emissions while maintaining high productivity under heat-stress conditions.

Manure management approaches. Novel manure management strategies aimed at reducing the environmental consequences of poultry production, especially regarding GHG emissions and nutrient runoff are required. Three main strategies are the integration of composting with biochar application for carbon sequestration, the use of anaerobic digestion for methane capture and biogas energy recovery, and the enhancement of manure separation and storage systems to reduce volatile emissions (Symeon et al., 2025). A highly effective approach to reducing GHG emissions involves the introduction of biochar into composting processes. Biochar is produced through the pyrolysis of biomass under elevated temperatures, yielding a stable, carbon-dense substance that is resistant to decomposition. The addition of biochar into compost can contribute to the stabilization of organic matter and may reduce emissions of gases such as nitrous oxide and ammonia under certain conditions. However, mitigation outcomes are not universally consistent and depend on compost composition, amendment type, application rate, and management practices. For example, the combination of biochar with additives such as zeolite has been reported to substantially reduce N₂O and NH₃ emissions under controlled composting conditions (up to 78.13 % and 63.40 %, respectively), although such reductions may not be reproducible across all composting systems or operational settings (Yin et al., 2021). This practice not only reduces emissions but also markedly increases soil organic carbon (SOC) which is carbon component of organic matter in the soil and improves overall soil fertility and nutrient cycling (Qian et al., 2023). A recent study demonstrated that co-composting chicken manure with straw and 10 % zeolite in a water bath heating system significantly reduced ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions by 28 % and 55 %, respectively, suggesting zeolite's strong potential for mitigating nitrogen-related gaseous emissions during poultry manure composting (Wang et al., 2024b).

The second strategy is anaerobic digestion (AD), a biological process that transforms organic waste, such as poultry manure, into renewable biogas, mainly consisting of methane. This process effectively stabilizes waste, minimizes odors and volatile solids, and produces clean energy that can replace fossil fuel consumption (Alengebawy et al., 2024). Recent advancements in AD have concentrated on enhancing essential operational parameters, including hydraulic retention time and temperature regulation particularly within mesophilic conditions (∼36–37 °C). Furthermore, the co-digestion of various organic substrates can enhance both the yield of biogas and the process stability. Advancements in biogas capture and utilization technologies are now extensively implemented to recover methane that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere from unmanaged manure storage (Mansour et al., 2023). Under these optimized conditions, poultry manure shows increased energy recovery and lower emissions.

The third strategy focuses on enhancing manure separation and storage systems, which is crucial for reducing the emission of gaseous compounds like NH₃ and N₂O, as well as for minimizing nutrient losses through runoff. Improved separation methods decrease the volume and nutrient levels of manure needing storage, thereby significantly minimizing the risk of emissions during that period (Qu et al., 2023). Proper manure storage requires careful management of solid accumulation and the prevention of leaching, both essential for ensuring environmental safety and preserving nutrient retention.

Ultimately, land application techniques like pasture renovation can effectively reduce nutrient runoff. Enhanced application strategies promote better soil infiltration and minimize surface runoff, leading to a notable reduction in phosphorus and nitrogen losses, particularly in fields treated with poultry litter. The combination of these integrated methods contributes to a reduced environmental impact in poultry farming, all while maintaining or potentially improving agricultural productivity.

Housing and ventilation modifications. Energy consumption in poultry housing for lighting, ventilation, and heating often relies on electricity and fossil fuels, both of which significantly contribute to GHG emissions (Attia et al., 2024). Different ventilation strategies to mitigate these emissions are summarized in Table 2. However, the adoption of naturally ventilated buildings in broiler production can substantially reduce electricity usage, particularly in regions with unreliable electrical grids. These systems eliminate the need for mechanically powered ventilation and cooling units, thereby reducing operational costs and minimizing the environmental impact associated with generator-fueled electricity. Efficiently designed natural ventilation in poultry houses maintains optimal indoor conditions, reduces heat stress, and improves sustainability (Fezai et al., 2024). It has been reported that housing designs not only conserve energy but also significantly lower the carbon footprint of poultry production. These approaches are especially beneficial in rural or developing areas where energy infrastructure is limited. Integration with renewable energy technologies, such as solar-powered climate control systems, further improves efficiency (Firfiris et al., 2019), who emphasized the effectiveness of passive cooling systems in reducing energy demand. Similarly, another study demonstrated that solar-powered ventilation and heating systems improve poultry house productivity, offering a scalable solution for sustainable energy use in the sector (Gad et al., 2020).Table 2Different ventilation strategies to reduce GHG emissions.Table 2 dummy alt textHousing/Ventilation StrategySystem TypeGHG Emission Reduction EffectReferencesNaturally ventilated poultry housesPassive housing designReduces electricity consumption and cooling load by 50–70 %, significantly lowering CO₂ emissions-ideal for rural, low-energy, and hot climate environments.Firfiris et al., 2019Gas-to-Energy Poultry HousingHarmful gas (CH₄, NH₃, H₂S) recovery and conversion systemReduced electricity uses by ∼32 %; captures methane and ammonia, preventing GHG releaseKim et al., 2025Solar-powered ventilation and heating systemsRenewable energy integrationReduced ammonia, CO₂ and H2S; Improved energy efficiency; lower 30–50 % fossil fuel dependency; enhanced productivity of poultryGad et al., 2020Optimized tunnel and longitudinal ventilationMechanical ventilationAmmonia emissions dropped by 21.4 %, while birds achieved up to 2.3 kg greater weight gain and exhibited improved welfare.Gad et al., 2020Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)-optimized airflow distributionTunnel ventilation (CFD-modeled seasonal airflow control)NH₃ effectively removed in mid-season setups with higher extraction rates in tunnel ventilationKüçüktopçu et al., 2024Chemical Air ScrubberAcidified water-based systemNH₃ removal efficiency up to 96 % (pH 1.5–4); highly effective due to conversion to ammoniumOttosen et al., 2011; Guo et al., 2022Biological Air ScrubberMicrobial washing systemNH₃ removal efficiency 42–67 %; limited by higher pH for microbial growthWang et al., 2021,BiofilterHumid bioactive filter bedOdor removal efficiency 45–70 %; H₂S removal nearly 100 % (2.5–3.5 mg/m³)Strohmaier et al., 2019Geothermal Heating in Poultry HousingGround Source Heat Pump (GSHP) with plate heat exchangersLowers energy consumption and operating costs, significantly reduces CO₂ emissions, and enhances overall system efficiency.Meziane et al., 2024Earth–Air Heat Exchanger SystemGeothermal ventilationReduced CO₂ emissions by 719 kg CO₂/day for heating and 2531 kg CO₂/day for cooling; provided 45 % of heating and 38 % of cooling needsBoutera et al., 2022CFD: Computational fluid dynamics; GSHP: Ground Source Heat Pump

Adequate ventilation is crucial because it helps remove moisture, ammonia, and carbon dioxide from poultry sheds (Göransson et al., 2023). By maintaining humidity and reducing the accumulation of toxic gases, particularly ammonia, tandem ventilation systems play a critical role in preserving indoor air quality (Gad et al., 2020). Improved ventilation enhances poultry wellbeing and increases productivity. Longitudinal ventilation systems are particularly effective in establishing stable, controlled airflow throughout the poultry house, resulting in improved microclimate regulation and lower in-barn concentrations of gases. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling has further optimized these systems by refining fan placement and airflow distribution, revealing that even small adjustments can result in substantial energy savings and improved air quality (Konkol et al., 2022). Effectively designed ventilation systems can reduce in-barn ammonia concentrations by approximately 25-30 %, which is crucial for mitigating the formation of secondary particles and minimizing respiratory distress in avian species (Zhang et al., 2011). To enhance ventilation techniques, sophisticated air filtration and scrubber technologies are increasingly incorporated into poultry operations to capture and neutralize airborne contaminants. These systems are designed to reduce the release of ammonia and fine particulate matter into the environment, with overall emission reductions depending on system efficiency and airflow management. Multi-stage scrubbing systems, such as wet scrubbers and bubble column units, have achieved over 90 % efficiency in removing gaseous pollutants. Moreover, biofilters are employed to further reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides and methane, both of which are significant contributors to climate change (Grassauer et al., 2023). These air treatment systems increase the working and living conditions in poultry houses while simultaneously improving HVAC efficiency by alleviating the strain on fans and heating components, resulting in sustained energy and cost savings.

Integrating renewable energy solutions, particularly solar thermal systems, into poultry housing design has demonstrated efficacy in reducing reliance on external energy sources. Jalali et al. (2023) constructed a solar heating system in a poultry facility, resulting in a significant reduction in conventional energy usage. The use of solar thermal collectors to fulfill a significant portion of heating requirements not only reduced utility expenses but also minimized carbon emissions. Moreover, advancements in heating and cooling technology, such as ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) and earth-air heat exchangers (EAHEs), are enhancing the energy efficiency of poultry housing. Meziane et al. (2024) showed that geothermal systems can significantly reduce energy consumption and operational expenses relative to conventional heating methods. Similarly, Boutera et al. (2024) indicated that EAHEs satisfied 45 % of heating and 38 % of cooling demands in contemporary poultry facilities, resulting in a significant reduction in annual greenhouse gas emissions. Finally, ensuring sufficient ventilation is crucial for both poultry welfare and effective emission management. Barbosa et al. (2024) observed that inadequate ventilation is associated with heightened ammonia levels, thereby raising the risk of respiratory ailments and footpad dermatitis in broilers. Their findings underscore the necessity of maintaining ammonia concentrations below 20 ppm for optimal avian health.

While housing and ventilation-based mitigation strategies can effectively improve in-barn air quality and support emission-reduction goals, they may pose risks and are not entirely interchangeable. Elevated ventilation rates, particularly under naturally ventilated or hybrid systems, may result in uncontrolled airflow patterns, uneven temperature distribution, and increased exposure of birds to heat or cold stress, adversely affecting welfare and productivity (Ncho et al., 2025; Li et al., 2025). Excessive or poorly directed airflow can also promote dust resuspension and pathogen dispersion, while inadequate control may lead to localized ammonia accumulation despite overall dilution effects (Calvet et al., 2013; Lang et al., 2025). Moreover, ventilation strategies aimed at reducing in-barn pollutant concentrations can increase energy demand and disrupt humidity control, indirectly influencing litter quality and respiratory health (Miles et al., 2011). These considerations underscore the need for system-specific design, controlled airflow management, and integration of ventilation strategies with animal health and welfare monitoring to ensure that emission mitigation does not compromise poultry performance or well-being.

Circular Utilizing captured CO2 for sustainable feed production

The poultry industry, as a vital branch of the global agricultural industry, faces increasing pressure to enhance sustainability due to its environmental footprint and resource intensity. Adopting circular economy principles, which prioritize resource efficiency, waste minimization, and the transformation of byproducts into valuable inputs, offers promising strategies for sustainable and resilient poultry production systems, as illustrated in Fig. 2.Figure 2Illustration of a circular economy framework for sustainable poultry production systems. Poultry farm wastewater and byproducts are repurposed for microalgae cultivation in bioreactors, biochar and biofertilizer production, and insect farming, which subsequently contribute to the production of feed. Poultry provides meat and eggs for human consumption, while food waste is recycled back into crops and vegetable production through fertilizers, biochar, and hydroponic systems. This integrated cycle emphasizes resource efficiency, waste reduction, and the conversion of byproducts into valuable resources. Figure created with BioRender (www.biorender.com).Figure dummy alt text

Microalgae cultivation. Microalgae cultivation offers a promising and sustainable strategy for capturing CO₂ emissions from poultry operations and converting them into nutrient-rich biomass suitable for use as poultry feed. Microalgal species such as Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina platensis are particularly valued for their high concentrations of proteins, vitamins, and minerals, making them effective supplements in poultry nutrition (Esakkimuthu et al., 2024). Adding microalgae into poultry diets enhances growth performance, strengthens immunological function, and improves feed conversion ratios, hence promoting more efficient and sustainable production methods (Abdel-Wareth et al., 2024). Integrating microalgae cultivation directly within poultry farming systems further improves the environmental and economic viability of this approach. Specifically, advanced photobioreactor systems have demonstrated notable improvements in CO₂ capture efficiency and biomass productivity, making them suitable for on-site emission mitigation (Yahaya et al., 2025). By utilizing CO₂ generated from poultry houses, these systems actively contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions while producing a valuable co-product in the form of animal feed. A systematic review by Mendes et al. (2024) found that cumulative supplementation of approximately 20 g per broiler of Chlorella vulgaris maximizes growth performance and health metrics, including body weight gain, feed conversion, and plasma biomarkers. Uguz and Sozcu (2024) found that cultivating Synechococcaceae with poultry house exhaust air produces microalgae biomass containing approximately 50 % protein and beneficial amino acid profiles, while also lowering operational expenses; this approach effectively integrates sustainability and nutrition within circular economy frameworks. Additionally, Wlaźlak and Biesek (2025) indicate that supplementing poultry diets with Spirulina platensis and Chlorella vulgaris may enhance feed efficiency, reproductive characteristics, and product quality. For instance, Spirulina at 0.3 % reduced laying hen FCR from 4.07 to 3.75 with higher egg output (Selim et al., 2018). Additional benefits included enhanced meat poly unsaturated fatty acid content (Long et al., 2018), lower egg yolk cholesterol, richer yolk pigmentation (Peipei and Zumin, 2017), and shifts in gut microbiota toward beneficial bacteria (Balasubramanian et al., 2021). Moreover, microalgae cultivation can be conducted on non-arable land and sustained using saline or wastewater, making it an adaptable solution in regions with limited agricultural resources. Their high CO₂ fixation capacity significantly aids in carbon sequestration efforts (Costa et al., 2024). From a nutritional standpoint, microalgae inclusion in poultry diets typically at levels of 1–2 % has been associated with improved oxidative stability, improved gut health, and enhanced immune responses, all of which translate into higher quality meat and eggs (Abdel-Wareth et al., 2024). Additionally, coupling microalgae systems with poultry wastewater streams allows for nutrient recycling, further closing the loop in integrated production systems and enhancing overall farm sustainability (Dias et al., 2025).

Integration of waste streams. Poultry manure constitutes a significant organic waste stream, rich in micro and macronutrients particularly nitrogen and phosphorus as well as organic matter, making it a valuable resource for circular waste management strategies (Manogaran et al., 2022). Valorizing this waste through composting and biochar amendment offers a dual it transforms poultry litter into high-efficiency biological fertilizers and soil conditioners while concurrently reducing environmental impacts. Composting enhances the microbial breakdown of organic material, whereas pyrolysis converts poultry manure into biochar a stable, carbon-rich material that improves soil fertility and enables long-term carbon sequestration (Sayed et al., 2024). The agronomic benefits of biochar-enriched poultry litter are well-documented. Applications of this material have led to measurable improvements in plant growth, nutrient availability, and soil enzyme activity key indicators of enhanced soil health and sustainable productivity. For example, incorporating poultry manure at 10 t ha⁻¹ combined with biochar at 30 t ha⁻¹ significantly increased both soil nutrient concentrations and maize yields (Agbede et al., 2024; Agbede, 2025). On the technological front, Hadroug et al. (2025) demonstrated that low-temperature (400°C) poultry-manure-derived biochar modified with iron enhanced spring barley shoot length by up to 38 % and improved root growth compared to controls. These improvements were attributed to enhanced surface functionality and nutrient release characteristics. In addition to solid amendments, poultry manure can be valorized through anaerobic digestion (AD) for renewable energy generation. Tawfik et al. (2023) note that AD of chicken manure offers strong potential for biomethane production but is constrained by its low carbon-to-nitrogen ratio and ammonia inhibition, both of which can suppress methanogenesis. They highlight co-digestion with carbon-rich materials, pH control, and biochar addition as effective strategies to improve process stability and methane yields.

Beyond direct productivity benefits, these biofertilizer and bioenergy strategies contribute meaningfully to environmental sustainability. By stabilizing nutrients and enhancing soil organic matter, they reduce nutrient leaching, lower GHG emissions, and decrease reliance on synthetic fertilizers (Ferdous et al., 2023). Integrating poultry waste into such closed-loop systems exemplifies the principles of the circular economy, where nutrient cycles are closed, pollution is minimized, and waste is repurposed into valuable inputs for sustainable agricultural production.

Valorization of Agricultural Byproducts. Recycling agricultural byproducts, such as vegetable waste, into poultry feed through fermentation processes offers a sustainable strategy for minimizing agricultural waste and reducing feed costs (Yafetto et al., 2023). This approach enhances circularity in poultry production by repurposing low-value waste into nutritionally enriched resources, thereby supporting both environmental stewardship and economic efficiency. Fermented feeds have been shown to improve poultry growth performance, enhance gut health, and strengthen immune responses (Xu et al., 2023). These benefits, combined with reduced environmental impact, contribute to the development of eco-friendly poultry production systems aligned with circular economy principles (Ababor et al., 2023; Katu et al., 2025). Building upon this concept of feed circularity, another emerging avenue is the recycling of feed waste and agro-industrial residues into value-added protein sources. Reducing dependency on traditional protein ingredients and improving the management of organic waste are two important sustainability issues that this approach addresses. Single-cell proteins (SCPs), which are sustainable and high-quality additives for poultry diets, can be produced from agricultural waste through microbial fermentation (Nadar et al., 2024). In addition to providing a desirable amino acid profile, SCPs which are generated from microorganisms like yeast, algae, or fungi also lessen the environmental impact of producing poultry feed (Bala et al., 2023). Furthermore, recent advances in bioconversion technologies have enabled the extraction of bioactive compounds, such as peptides and amino acids, from animal waste, enriching the functional properties of feed and supporting poultry health (Boboua et al., 2024). Together, these innovations demonstrate the potential of biotechnological valorization to close nutrient loops and support a more resilient poultry industry.

Despite these sustainability advantages, the use of agricultural byproducts and waste streams in poultry feed necessitates careful consideration of feed quality and safety. Variability in nutrient composition, along with potential contamination by mycotoxins, heavy metals, or pathogenic microorganisms, represents a key challenge when waste-derived ingredients are insufficiently processed or monitored (Yafetto et al., 2023; Ahmad et al., 2024). However, processing approaches such as controlled fermentation, thermal treatment, drying, and enzymatic bioconversion have been shown to stabilize nutrient profiles, improve digestibility, and significantly reduce microbial and toxin loads, thereby ensuring feed safety (Sugiharto and Ranjitkar, 2019; Cao et al., 2024a). In addition, regulatory frameworks in many regions require compliance with strict quality control measures, including pathogen testing and maximum residue limits, prior to feed inclusion. When appropriately processed and regulated, waste streams can be safely incorporated into poultry diets without compromising bird health or performance, while reinforcing circular-economy and emission-reduction objectives.

Beyond feed-centric advancements, closed-loop farming systems represent a comprehensive solution that integrates emission control, resource optimization, and waste reutilization into a unified system. Although these technologies are not always applied directly in poultry houses, they are increasingly integrated at the farm or value chain level to manage poultry-derived waste streams and reduce the overall GHG footprint of poultry production systems. These systems utilize interconnected processes, including anaerobic digestion, biochar production, aquaponics, and nutrient recycling, to convert poultry waste and by-products into renewable energy and valuable agricultural inputs. For instance, anaerobic digestion of poultry manure generates biogas for energy and digesta for use as organic fertilizer, reducing dependence on synthetic inputs while mitigating GHG emissions. By cycling resources internally and diversifying outputs, these solutions not only lessen the environmental impact of poultry operations but also improve farm resilience overall. New technologies in controlled environment agriculture (CEA) and recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) have enabled the optimization of inputs in a closed-loop system. CEA systems enable plants to grow well by recycling water, nutrients, and energy in greenhouses with minimal outside assistance (Ragany et al., 2023). In parallel, RAS technologies integrate fish and crop production by reusing nutrient-rich aquaculture wastewater in hydroponic vegetable cultivation (Lal et al., 2024). These models exemplify how integrated systems can turn waste into functional resources across multiple production domains. In economically disadvantaged areas, small-scale anaerobic digesters have demonstrated efficacy in producing clean home energy and organic fertilizers, yielding both environmental benefits and socio-economic improvement (Kulkarni et al., 2021). Additionally, incorporating biochar into agricultural soils within these systems enhances carbon sequestration and soil fertility, thereby adding long-term sustainability value (Li et al., 2020). Despite their potential, the broader adoption of closed-loop production systems faces practical challenges. These include technological complexity, capital investment requirements, and the need for knowledge transfer between scientific institutions and production communities. Addressing these barriers will require continued research, interdisciplinary collaboration, and the development of region-specific models that account for socio-cultural and economic constraints (Ragany et al., 2023).

Nevertheless, the implementation of circular economy ideas into chicken production through feed recycling, biotechnological advancements, and closed-loop system design presents a transformative approach for establishing climate-resilient, resource-efficient agricultural systems. In this concept, waste transforms from a burden into a crucial input, enhancing sustainability throughout the poultry value chain.

Emerging technologies in greenhouse gas sequestration

Methane-oxidizing microbes. Methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB) are specialized methanotrophic microbes that utilize methane as a primary carbon and energy sources to turn it into CO2 or use it into microbial biomass under oxic and anoxic conditions. This metabolic process is known as methanotroph, MOB serves as a crucial biological sink that can reduce methane emissions significantly and fight against climate change (Rani et al., 2024). Traditionally, aerobic methanotrophs were believed to function exclusively under oxic conditions; however, recent discoveries have challenged this assumption, revealing an unexpected versatility in their ecological roles. A striking example of this adaptability arises from a permanently stratified freshwater lake, where the activity of aerobic gammaproteobacterial methanotrophs from the order Methylococcales was demonstrated not only at the oxic–anoxic interface but also within anoxic zones. These methanotrophs were found to sustain methane oxidation by utilizing alternative anaerobic pathways, including fermentation-based methanotrophy and denitrification under nitrate-amended anoxic conditions (Schorn et al., 2024). Notably, these bacteria could assimilate up to 60 % of methane-derived carbon into biomass, a finding that implies methane sink capacities in anoxic environments may be grossly underestimated when aerobic MOB are overlooked (Schorn et al., 2024). This metabolic plasticity significantly broadens their ecological niches and reinforces their importance in methane cycling across varied redox environments.

Based on findings from aquatic systems, studies in terrestrial ecosystems have shown how environmental factors influence the composition and activity of MOB communities. Soil and wetland environments exhibit substantial variability in methane oxidation potential, depending on parameters such as pH, oxygen availability, and concentrations of methane, temperature and salinity (de Groot et al., 2025). Type I methanotrophs (Gammaproteobacteria), for instance, thrive under neutral pH conditions and elevated methane levels (Kambara et al., 2022). Agricultural soil management practices such as no-tillage have been shown to enhance MOB abundance and methane oxidation rates, particularly in crop rotation systems like oilseed rape–rice fields. These findings underscore the potential for integrating MOB-friendly practices into land management to achieve enhanced methane mitigation. Additionally, the observed resilience and dynamic adaptability of MOB communities in response to fluctuating environmental conditions suggest that these microbes can adjust to and potentially thrive under various climate change stressors (Cao et al., 2024b). Relying on these insights, recent studies have revealed new anaerobic pathways that enhance the potential applications of MOB. Candidatus Methylomirabilis oxyfera demonstrates the capability of combining methane oxidation with nitrite reduction in strictly anoxic conditions, suggesting that efficient methane removal can take place without the presence of oxygen (Ettwig et al., 2010). This finding opens the door for broader methane mitigation strategies, particularly in oxygen-limited or engineered settings. Current investigations delve into practical applications such as the microbial inoculation of soils, the use of engineered biofilters, and the integration into constructed wetlands. The integration of these techniques with organic amendments has demonstrated potential in improving methane capture efficiency. Despite ongoing challenges related to scaling, long-term microbial viability, and field implementation, simulation-based models demonstrate the effectiveness of enhancing microbial oxidation capacity in specific areas, which can play a significant role in achieving global CH₄ reduction targets (Schorn et al., 2024; Nwokolo and Enebe, 2025).

Microalgae for CO₂ mitigation and biomass yield. Microalgae-based bioreactors have emerged as a promising and sustainable solution for capturing CO₂ and generating biomass, offering a dual benefit of mitigating greenhouse gas emissions while producing high-value bioresources. Due to their exceptionally high photosynthetic efficiency, microalgae can fix CO₂ at rates significantly greater than terrestrial plants, with certain species demonstrating fixation capabilities up to 50 times higher (Ashour et al., 2024). This remarkable capacity positions microalgae as a strategic biological tool in climate mitigation. Recent advancements in photobioreactor designs have significantly contributed to the optimization of microalgal cultivation. In particular, unique designs, such as the S-shaped photobioreactor, have demonstrated a marked improvement in gas–liquid mass transfer, leading to enhanced CO₂ absorption and increased lipid production (Penloglou et al., 2024). Similarly, the development of immobilized microalgae-based trickle bed reactors has demonstrated notable improvements in CO₂ removal efficiency, achieving up to 40 % CO₂ removal under specific gas flow conditions (Yang and Xin, 2023). These technological innovations collectively underscore the growing feasibility of integrating microalgae cultivation into industrial CO₂ mitigation frameworks.

Moreover, integrating microalgae systems with waste treatment processes further enhances their environmental and economic viability. Notably, studies have investigated the use of digested piggery wastewater combined with simulated flue gas as a nutrient-rich culture medium, yielding substantial biomass and lipid content, and demonstrating the potential for coupling waste valorization with bioresource production (Zhang et al., 2019). Additionally, the application of phytohormones and the strategic management of abiotic stressors have been identified as effective methods for improving both CO₂ fixation and lipid accumulation in algal cultures (Chen et al., 2023). In terms of system configuration, microalgae bioreactors are broadly classified into open and closed systems, each with distinct advantages and limitations. Open pond systems, such as high-rate algal ponds (HRAPs), are cost-effective and widely adopted; however, they are prone to contamination, exhibit low biomass densities, and offer limited CO₂ capture efficiency, which constrain their scalability. In contrast, closed photobioreactors offer enhanced environmental control over critical parameters such as light intensity, temperature, pH, and gas exchange, thereby reducing contamination risk and significantly increasing biomass productivity (Carbone and Melkonian, 2023). Common photobioreactors configurations, tubular, flat-plate, column, and airlift designs, each present unique advantage in light penetration and mass transfer optimization (Shareefdeen et al., 2023). It is crucial to meticulously regulate CO₂ concentrations in these systems, as insufficient levels might restrict algal development, while extremely high concentrations (exceeding 15 % vol.) may impede growth by interfering with carbon-concentrating mechanisms. To combat this issue, various supplementation solutions, such as the utilization of flue gas or chemical absorption solvents, are progressively adopted to improve CO₂ fixation efficiency while ensuring cost-effectiveness (Sun et al., 2025). Despite these advancements, several challenges continue to impede the scaling of microalgae bioreactor systems for industrial application. Key technical barriers include limited light penetration, CO₂ mass transfer inefficiencies, and high capital and operational costs. Nevertheless, the potential of microalgae bioreactors to support a circular carbon economy and contribute to sustainable biomass production remains substantial. These systems represent a compelling frontier in environmental biotechnology and bioresource engineering, and as such, warrant continued investment, innovation, and interdisciplinary research to unlock their full climate mitigation potential.

Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs). Microbial Electrolysis Cells (MECs) have emerged as a promising bio electrochemical technology for sustainable hydrogen production and GHG mitigation. By leveraging the metabolic activities of electroactive microorganisms, MECs facilitate the conversion of organic substrates into hydrogen gas with the application of a minimal external voltage, typically between 0.2–0.8 V, which is significantly lower than that required for conventional water electrolysis (Rousseau et al., 2020; Koul et al., 2022). This technology provides a renewable energy source and mitigates GHG emissions by processing organic waste streams. Recent studies have shown the effectiveness of MECs in hydrogen production. A single-chamber MEC attained a hydrogen generation rate of 1.28 m³ per cubic meter of reactor volume per day with an energy efficiency of 85 % under steady-state circumstances (Marchetti et al., 2025). Furthermore, the alkaline pH in the cathodic chamber significantly inhibited methanogenic activity, promoting hydrogen production. The integration of MECs with wastewater treatment processes offers additional environmental benefits. By utilizing wastewater as a substrate, MECs can simultaneously treat organic pollutants and generate hydrogen, contributing to a circular economy (Cui et al., 2019). Furthermore, life cycle assessments have indicated that biohydrogen production via MECs can achieve carbon-negative emissions, with values of ∼8.6 kg CO₂-equivalent per kg of hydrogen produced when coupled with carbon sequestration and renewable electricity sources (Ganguly et al., 2025). Advancements in MEC design, such as the development of membrane-less, single-chamber systems, have further improved their feasibility for large-scale applications. These strategies streamline reactor design and reduce expenses related to membrane maintenance and replacement (Anitus et al., 2025). Despite these promising developments, challenges remain in scaling up MEC technology for commercial deployment. Issues such as electrode material optimization, system stability, and economic viability need to be addressed through continued research and development. Nevertheless, the dual benefits of renewable hydrogen production and GHG emission reduction position MECs as a valuable component in the transition towards sustainable energy systems.

Poultry biochar for soil carbon sequestration. Soil carbon sequestration plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change by capturing atmospheric CO₂ and storing it in stable soil organic carbon (SOC) pools. Among the available strategies, the application of biochar, a carbon-rich product obtained from the pyrolysis of biomass, has received considerable attention for its potential to enhance long-term carbon storage in soils (Li and Tasnady, 2023). Specifically, poultry-derived biochar has emerged as a potent soil amendment due to its high carbon content and inherent stability. Produced through the pyrolysis of poultry litter, this form of biochar features a recalcitrant carbon structure resistant to microbial decomposition, thereby facilitating prolonged carbon retention in soils. Field study data supports the carbon sequestration capacity of poultry litter biochar (PLB). The combination of PLB with poultry litter and inorganic fertilizers yielded a 43 % enhancement in total soil carbon relative to the exclusive application of inorganic fertilizers (Adeli et al., 2023). Beyond its carbon capture potential, PLB also improves soil physical and chemical properties. Its porous structure enhances aeration and water retention, while a high cation exchange capacity aids in nutrient retention (Adekiya et al., 2025). Moreover, PLB can immobilize heavy metals in contaminated soils, reducing their bioavailability and associated environmental risks (Tsai and Chang, 2022). Importantly, the effectiveness of PLB in long-term carbon storage is influenced by pyrolysis conditions. High-temperature pyrolysis (>500 °C) yields biochar with greater aromaticity and structural stability, extending carbon residence time in soils. Furthermore, co-application with other organic amendments, such as lignite, has shown synergistic effects in improving both soil carbon content and soil health. Compared to plant-based biochar, poultry litter-derived biochar typically contains higher levels of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, which not only enhance soil fertility but also contribute to biochar’s stability by promoting sorption interactions with soil minerals (Lima et al., 2024).

However, despite the demonstrated potential of poultry litter biochar, agronomic and carbon-sequestration outcomes are not consistently reported across studies. Multiple investigations report neutral or variable responses in soil carbon accumulation and crop productivity, with outcomes strongly dependent on site-specific factors such as biochar feedstock composition, pyrolysis temperature, application rate, baseline soil organic carbon levels, soil texture, and regional climatic conditions (Jeffery et al., 2011; Biederman and Harpole, 2013). In some systems, improvements in soil chemical and physical properties following biochar application have not translated into proportional yield responses or sustained gains in soil carbon stocks, particularly when application rates are suboptimal or biochar properties are poorly matched to soil conditions (Liu et al., 2014; Ye et al., 2020). Collectively, these findings indicate that poultry litter biochar should be regarded as a context-dependent mitigation strategy requiring site-specific optimization rather than a universally applicable solution.

Meta-analyses further substantiate the carbon sequestration potential of poultry-derived biochar. Global datasets indicate that biochar applications can increase SOC stocks by 25 % to over 80 %, depending on application rate, biochar feedstock, and soil type (Gross et al., 2021). Poultry litter biochar shows consistent performance across a range of climatic zones and soil textures due to its relatively high ash content, alkaline pH, and stable aromatic carbon structure, which contribute to its persistence in soils (Feng et al., 2023; Adekiya et al., 2025). Its fine particle size and porous morphology not only enhance SOC stabilization but also improve soil aggregation, reducing carbon losses through erosion and mineralization. Furthermore, several studies highlight that the co-application of poultry litter biochar with organic amendments or cover cropping can further amplify SOC gains by promoting synergistic effects between physical protection, microbial activity, and organic matter inputs-making it a robust tool for climate change mitigation within circular agricultural systems (Zhang et al., 2011).

Genetic strategies for low-emission poultry. The poultry industry has made substantial progress in genetic selection to enhance feed efficiency and reduce GHG emissions. By focusing on traits such as feed conversion ratio (FCR), residual feed intake, and digestive efficiency, breeders are developing chicken lines that exhibit accelerated growth with reduced feed requirements, resulting in less manure production and related emissions. Choosing broilers for enhanced apparent metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen has demonstrated a reduction in nitrogen and phosphorus excretion without compromising growth performance, thereby establishing a definitive connection between genetic selection and the mitigation of environmental effects. (Abdollahi et al., 2021; Tan et al., 2022). Recent advances in genomic selection have accelerated this progress. Genomic tools enable the identification of dense genetic markers associated with feed efficiency traits, allowing for more precise and earlier selection decisions (Çelik, 2024). Unlike traditional methods, genomic selection captures a higher proportion of additive genetic variance and provides more accurate breeding value predictions, even for complex traits such as feed efficiency and growth rate. Its successful implementation in poultry breeding has resulted in measurable improvements in body weight and meat yield across generations, demonstrating its potential to boost productivity while simultaneously lowering the industry’s carbon footprint (Tan et al., 2022).

The integration of host genetic data with gut microbiota analysis is a promising advancement. The gut microbiota of chickens greatly impacts feed conversion and metabolic processes, with recent research demonstrating that microbiome makeup determines nutrient extraction efficiency in individual broilers (Aruwa et al., 2021; He et al., 2023). Combining microbial profiling with host genomics enhances our understanding of host-microbe interactions, opening new possibilities for incorporating microbiome traits into selection schemes (Wen et al., 2021). This integrated approach may further optimize nutrient utilization and digestive metabolism, reduce nutrient excretion, and be associated with GHG emissions. However, a singular focus on efficiency and emission reduction can pose risks to animal health and welfare. Intensive selection for rapid growth and superior feed conversion has been linked to an increase in cases of skeletal deformities, lameness, and cardiovascular disorders in broilers, raising ethical and welfare concerns (Hartcher and Lum, 2020). Research indicates that genotype plays a more decisive role in these issues than management practices, highlighting the need to balance productivity with welfare considerations. Therefore, future breeding strategies must incorporate welfare traits alongside efficiency and sustainability goals, adopting a more holistic approach (Xiong et al., 2024).

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Systems. In commercial poultry production system, the majority of the CO2 produced from respiration, followed by aerobic fermentation of the excreta and other litter residues; N2O and CH4 emissions are quite modest (Guiziou and Béline, 2005). Chicken metabolism produces carbon dioxide, which is impacted by physical activity, body weight, daily weight gain, and environmental factors such as temperature, and humidity. Carbon dioxide emissions from litter which is the result of fermentation processes depends on litter physical characteristics, litter material type, number of flocks, and overall farm management (Carvalho et al., 2011). Emission range of CO2 for each kg live weight of broiler production is 2 to 2.3 kg (Dong et al., 2006). For a 2.43 kg broiler, average emissions were obtained 3.58 kg CO2, 1.63 g CH4 and 2.07 g N2O whereas respiration alone emit around 1.4 kg CO2 per kg of meat production (Calvet et al., 2011). So, poultry respiration and litter fermentation contribute a significant on farm CO2 emissions, thus capturing and reusing this carbon represents a promising mitigation technique. Therefore, incorporating carbon capture equipment into poultry houses can reduce direct atmospheric emissions.

CCS system represent a foundational pillar in global GHG mitigation strategies, offering a technologically robust pathway for capturing CO₂ from large-scale emission sources and preventing its release into the atmosphere. As nations strive to achieve net-zero emissions, CCS plays a pivotal role in supporting compliance with international climate commitments and decarbonization goals (Kazlou et al., 2024). The CCS value chain generally comprises three interrelated CO₂ capture, transportation, and subsequent storage or utilization. This comprehensive strategy not only enables significant reductions in emissions but also improves the opportunities for circular carbon management by promoting the value of captured carbon. Furthermore, parallel advances in electrochemical CO₂ reduction systems have opened new frontiers in carbon utilization (Kim et al., 2024). These systems can convert captured CO₂ into high-value chemicals and fuels such as methanol, and formic acid promoting the establishment of circular carbon economies and improving the overall cost-effectiveness of CCS deployment (Wiranarongkorn et al., 2023). This dual capability, emission avoidance and resource generation, strengthens the case for CCS as a critical component of future low-carbon energy systems. Emerging technologies for GHG sequestration are illustrated in Figure 3, with potential applications in poultry production systems.Figure 3Emerging technologies GHG sequestration and their potential applications in poultry production systems. Strategies include carbon capture and storage systems, microbial electrolysis cells converting wastewater into hydrogen biofuel, genetic selection for improved efficiency, IoT-based precision feeding systems, microalgae cultivation in bioreactors, and soil carbon sequestration through poultry-derived biochar. These technologies represent innovative approaches to mitigate emissions and enhance sustainability. Figure created with BioRender (www.biorender.com).Figure dummy alt text

Among the various CO₂ sequestration pathways, geological storage remains the most mature, scalable, and widely implemented solution. It typically involves the injection of CO₂ into deep saline aquifers, depleted oil and gas reservoirs, or reactive rock formations that support mineral carbonation, thereby enabling permanent immobilization of carbon over geological timescales (Zhang and Arif, 2024). However, the long-term effectiveness and safety of these storage sites hinge on the implementation of robust measurement, monitoring, and verification frameworks. Encouragingly, recent progress in satellite remote sensing, seismic imaging, and geochemical surveillance has significantly enhanced our capacity to detect and manage potential leakages, thereby reinforcing public confidence and regulatory trust in CCS systems (Moretta and Craig, 2022).

In parallel, interdisciplinary research continues to address several implementation challenges by improving CO2 capture efficiency, optimizing integration with existing infrastructure, and conducting comprehensive life-cycle assessments to ensure environmental and economic viability (Zhang et al., 2024). These research efforts are critical for refining CCS systems so they can be deployed cost-effectively and at scale within broader decarbonization frameworks. Consequently, advanced CCS infrastructures are no longer considered merely transitional tools; they are now essential building blocks for long-term climate resilience. They represent a fusion of technological innovation, environmental policy, and system-level integration, offering reliable and large-scale CO₂ abatement potential. As the global climate crisis intensifies, it is increasingly clear that the success of CCS will depend on the alignment of coordinated policy incentives, investment mechanisms, and technological advancements. In this evolving context, CCS remains an indispensable element of integrated climate mitigation portfolios capable of delivering durable, verifiable, and planet-scale reductions in atmospheric CO₂ (Kazlou et al., 2024).

IoT and AI in Poultry Emission Management. The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) is transforming agricultural and environmental monitoring, offering real-time insights into GHG emissions and enabling more sustainable resource management. These technologies work synergistically to collect, analyze, and apply vast datasets, resulting in smarter and more efficient farming and industrial operations. In agriculture, IoT devices such as sensors and actuators are deployed across fields to continuously monitor key environmental parameters like moisture content, temperature, and humidity. This real-time data is vital for understanding the environmental factors that contribute to GHG emissions.

Together, AI and IoT often referred to as AIoT enable highly precise monitoring of emissions from various agricultural sources, including livestock, fertilizer applications, and farm machinery. These systems can detect emission hotspots in real time and recommend targeted mitigation strategies. Nawaz and Babar (2024) report that the adoption of AIoT technologies in farming has significantly improved yield, input efficiency, and environmental performance, highlighting its contribution to GHG reduction. Beyond agriculture, AIoT systems are playing a vital role in industrial and urban settings. Networks of IoT-enabled sensors are strategically installed in facilities, cities, and transportation infrastructures to capture real-time data on pollutants such as CO₂, NOₓ, particulate matter, and volatile organic compounds (Munera et al., 2021). These sensors form the perception layer of the IoT architecture, converting environmental signals into digital data. The information is then transmitted via communication protocols like Wi-Fi, cellular networks, or low-power wide-area networks such as LoRaWAN to cloud or edge computing platforms for analysis. At the processing stage referred to as the service layer AI models analyze the incoming data using machine learning (ML), deep learning, and data mining techniques. These algorithms detect anomalies, identify emission trends, and make real-time predictions. Notably, models like Random Forest Regressors and neural networks have shown high accuracy in forecasting pollutant concentrations and system behaviors (Popescu et al., 2024; Miller et al., 2025). The integration of Explainable AI (XAI) ensures that these decisions are transparent and interpretable, promoting stakeholder trust and regulatory compliance (Du and Chiu, 2024). In industrial manufacturing, AI-powered predictive analytics optimize production parameters using sensor data, thereby reducing carbon emissions and enhancing sustainability metrics (Ojadi et al., 2023).

AI and IoT-based systems represent a major advancement in real-time GHG emission tracking and environmental optimization. By combining intelligent sensor networks with powerful AI analytics, these systems enable continuous visibility and proactive responses to emission dynamics. Their growing success across agricultural, industrial, and urban contexts underscores their potential to reshape environmental governance. Moving forward, ongoing innovation and collaboration will be essential to overcoming technical and operational challenges, cementing the role of AI as a cornerstone of sustainable development and climate change mitigation. Recent advancements have demonstrated the practical application of AIoT systems in poultry houses. For instance, Bhattad et al. (2025) developed an IoT-based system for monitoring diurnal gas emissions in laying hens, integrating real-time sensors with cloud computing and machine learning models. Their study showed that continuous monitoring of GHG, particularly CO₂ and CH₄, provides critical insights into daily emission patterns, enabling early detection of unsafe thresholds and supporting proactive management strategies. The system not only stored and processed sensor data but also predicted next-day emission levels with high accuracy, offering poultry producers a powerful tool for improving environmental control, bird welfare, and sustainability in smart poultry farms. According to Lehaa et al. (2025) in response to elevated ammonia concentrations, an automated spraying system is activated to neutralize the gas, thereby significantly enhancing air quality and reducing health risks to poultry. In poultry houses, AIoT technologies are being adapted to monitor GHG such as CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O in real time. Nevertheless, the adoption of AIoT technologies is not without challenges. The heterogeneity and volume of sensor data require robust data governance to maintain data quality, privacy, and interoperability (Oikonomou et al., 2021). Additionally, the security of interconnected IoT devices is a growing concern, demanding advanced cybersecurity measures to protect infrastructure. Maintaining the relevance and accuracy of AI models also necessitates continuous training and validation, particularly as environmental conditions evolve (Mazhar et al., 2023). Sensor networks combined with AI models enable continuous tracking of emission levels and prediction of peak periods, providing farmers with actionable strategies to optimize ventilation, feeding regimes, and manure management. Such targeted approaches not only enhance poultry productivity but also contribute to measurable reductions in the sector’s GHG footprint.

Challenges and limitations in implementing GHG sequestration strategies in poultry farming

The poultry industry plays a crucial role in ensuring global food security by providing affordable and high-quality protein. However, it is also a significant contributor to GHG emissions, making the adoption of effective sequestration and mitigation strategies increasingly important. Despite the availability of innovative technologies and circular economy approaches, the widespread implementation of these strategies faces multiple challenges. Addressing these issues is critical to transitioning the poultry sector toward a more sustainable and climate-resilient future.

Economic barriers to GHG mitigation. The implementation of GHG mitigation strategies in poultry farming is significantly hindered by financial barriers, particularly in small- and medium-scale production systems. Promising technologies such as anaerobic digesters, biochar systems, and renewable energy integrations have demonstrated considerable potential to reduce emissions and enhance sustainability. However, these solutions often require substantial capital investment for installation and maintenance, making them economically inaccessible to many producers (Xing et al., 2020). Techno-economic assessments further reveal that the viability of such systems is highly context-dependent, influenced by factors such as feedstock availability, energy pricing, and local infrastructure (Naidu et al., 2024). Without adequate financial support or incentive mechanisms, the adoption of these climate-smart technologies remains limited.

Additionally, the lack of affordable financing options presents a critical constraint. Many smallholder farmers face challenges in accessing low-interest loans, subsidies, or risk-sharing schemes necessary for investing in mitigation infrastructure (Balana and Oyeyemi, 2022). Even when long-term economic returns are possible through energy savings or improved efficiency, the high upfront costs act as a deterrent. Renewable technologies, such as solar-powered systems and improved insulation, have proven effective in reducing emissions, but are often implemented only in regions with strong financial or policy support (Bathaei and Štreimikienė, 2023; Dalbanjan et al., 2025). Moreover, economic feasibility varies across geographic and climatic regions, underscoring the need for localized financial models and policy frameworks that consider production scale, regional costs, and resource availability (Cantillon et al., 2023). Without such targeted interventions, the transition to low-emission poultry systems will remain out of reach for many producers.

Regulatory gaps in emission control. Effective regulatory frameworks are essential to accelerating the adoption of GHG mitigation strategies in the poultry sector. However, policy inconsistencies, lack of enforcement mechanisms, and inadequate institutional support often hinder progress. In many regions, environmental regulations related to livestock emissions remain either underdeveloped or misaligned with practical on-farm realities. The absence of clear standards, emission benchmarks, and sustainability certification processes makes it difficult for producers to navigate or comply with GHG reduction goals. In the Mediterranean region, the lack of harmonized regulations and structured incentives has been identified as a significant constraint to scaling up mitigation practices in poultry operations (Zisis et al., 2023).

Furthermore, policy environments often fail to provide the economic or technical support required for farmers to adopt low-emission technologies (Paris et al., 2024). Where incentives exist, they are frequently targeted toward large-scale industrial farms, excluding smallholders who account for a substantial portion of poultry production in developing regions. Bureaucratic hurdles, such as complex permitting processes for biogas units or delays in approving alternative feed ingredients, also act as deterrents to innovation. The absence of integrated climate-agriculture frameworks that align environmental goals with productivity, food security, and rural development objectives continues to limit the scalability of GHG mitigation interventions (Kishore et al., 2024). Therefore, reforming governance structures to include clear guidelines, accessible incentive programs, and inclusive policy instruments is crucial for facilitating a meaningful transition to climate-resilient poultry systems.

Knowledge gaps in poultry GHG mitigation. Despite progress in sustainable poultry farming, substantial knowledge gaps persist regarding the effectiveness, scalability, and integration of various GHG sequestration techniques across diverse production systems. While controlled studies have shown that interventions such as biochar application, optimized manure management, and dietary modifications can reduce emissions (Hassan et al., 2022; Yadav et al., 2023; Yan et al., 2024; Symeon et al., 2025), their broader applicability remains uncertain. Environmental variability, differences in housing systems, and regional disparities in infrastructure complicate the extrapolation of these findings to real-world commercial settings. Moreover, most current life cycle assessments and carbon footprint models fail to account for poultry-specific emission parameters, such as ammonia volatilization and nitrous oxide release from litter, which limits their accuracy in representing the true emission dynamics of poultry systems (Gržinić et al., 2023).

In addition, there is a critical lack of longitudinal and systems-based studies evaluating the long-term effects, co-benefits, and potential trade-offs of various mitigation strategies. The durability of soil carbon sequestration through the application of poultry manure or agroforestry integration remains underexplored. Similarly, interactions between emerging innovations such as precision feeding, probiotic supplementation, and genetic selection for low-residual feed intake and existing mitigation approaches are not well understood (Króliczewska et al., 2023). This lack of integrated analysis hinders the development of comprehensive, evidence-based decision-support tools for producers and policymakers. Furthermore, the expanding interest in carbon markets and nature-based solutions underscores the need to quantify additional ecosystem services like nitrogen efficiency, water use optimization, and biodiversity enhancement, which are scarcely addressed in current poultry science literature (Grassauer et al., 2023; Attia et al., 2024). Bridging these gaps will require coordinated, interdisciplinary research that aligns environmental science, animal nutrition, and policy analysis to develop regionally adapted and data-driven sequestration frameworks.

Adoption barriers in GHG mitigation. The effective implementation of GHG mitigation strategies in poultry farming depends largely on farmers' awareness, technical capacity, and willingness to adopt new technologies. However, numerous adoption barriers persist, particularly in developing and resource-limited contexts. Limited access to formal education, inadequate training programs, and resistance to behavioral change significantly hinder the uptake of environmentally sustainable strategies. Key factors influencing sustainability knowledge included years of formal education, access to veterinary support, and participation in social organizations revealing the critical role of education and extension services in fostering sustainable behavior (Nwobodo et al., 2023). Moreover, a recent study emphasized that without structured roadmaps, digital training tools, and participatory learning platforms, farmers may struggle to navigate the technical and financial complexities of mitigation interventions (Bist et al., 2024). According to Maze et al. (2024), their analysis revealed overall increasing methane emissions, with buffalo and cattle as the largest contributors, while emissions from poultry were comparatively lower. Nevertheless, the study emphasizes that even smaller contributors, such as poultry, play a role in the overall livestock GHG footprint, highlighting the importance of accurate monitoring and targeted mitigation strategies across all livestock types to reduce climate impacts.

Beyond the poultry sector, similar barriers have been observed in other agricultural systems. Research on olive farming in Southern Spain identified lack of farmer training and technical support as key impediments to sustainable strategies adoption, advocating for participatory action research that positions farmers as co-creators of knowledge rather than passive recipients (Parra et al., 2022). These insights are mirrored in poultry systems, where adaptation to climate change will require proactive measures such as enhanced housing, disease management, water efficiency, and feed innovation. According to Ngongolo and Mrimi (2024), achieving meaningful climate resilience and emission reduction in poultry farming depends on multi-stakeholder collaboration, bridging the gap between researchers, extension agents, policy bodies, and producers. Thus, advancing farmer education and engagement is essential for scaling GHG mitigation strategies and achieving long-term sustainability in the poultry sector.

Future prospects and research directions

Advancements in sustainable poultry farming and novel sequestration strategies. The poultry industry stands at a crossroad, facing the dual challenge of meeting growing protein demands while minimizing its environmental footprint. Future strategies must emphasize the integration of advanced, climate-smart technologies with low-carbon innovations to enhance sustainability. Utilizing unconventional and locally available feed resources such as agro-industrial by-products, microalgae, insects, or food waste can significantly reduce GHG emissions by lowering dependency on traditional high-input feed ingredients. These circular strategies not only support waste valorization but also contribute to meeting sustainable development goals (Vlaicu et al., 2024).

Emerging biological interventions such as biochar supplementation, probiotics, and enzyme technologies show promise in improving nutrient utilization efficiency and reducing enteric emissions (Martinez-Fernandez et al., 2024; Wanapat et al., 2024). Moreover, genomic selection and breeding for low residual feed intake (RFI) in poultry could open new avenues for emission reduction, although these innovations demand significant investment in research and infrastructure (Ramankevich et al., 2025).

Integration of renewable energy and precision technologies. Adopting renewable energy systems, such as solar photovoltaic, biogas, and hybrid models, can drastically reduce the carbon footprint of poultry operations. Such technologies have proven effective in reducing electricity consumption and emissions while enhancing long-term economic feasibility (Zeyad et al., 2022). Coupled with energy-efficient housing designs, these systems are especially promising for rural and off-grid areas in developing nations. However, their widespread application requires policy incentives and farmer training.

Precision livestock farming (PLF) technologies, incorporating sensors, machine learning, and automation, enable real-time monitoring of bird health, feed intake, and environmental conditions. These innovations improve feed efficiency, reduce wastage, and lower GHG output while maintaining animal welfare (Marmelstein et al., 2024). Adopting holistic farming systems that integrate various sustainable practices can optimize resource use and enhance nutrient cycling. Such systems encompass climate-smart agricultural practices, effective waste management, and the use of alternative energy sources. Developing a structured research roadmap that emphasizes these integrated approaches is vital for addressing the challenges of feeding a growing global population sustainably (Bist et al., 2024). Fostering collaboration among researchers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders is crucial for advancing sustainable poultry farming practices. Future research should focus on scalable, low-cost PLF tools suitable for smallholder farms. Integrated systems combining renewable energy, automation, and smart waste management hold transformative potential for future poultry sustainability.

Collaborative solutions for sustainable poultry farming. Addressing the complex challenges of sustainable poultry farming requires interdisciplinary collaboration among agricultural scientists, environmentalists, engineers, and policymakers. Such collaboration fosters the development of innovative technologies and practices that enhance sustainability and productivity. A study by Zisis et al. (2023) emphasized the importance of implementing sustainable practices in poultry farming to reduce GHG emissions. The authors highlight that policy interventions, including subsidies and incentives for adopting eco-friendly technologies, are crucial for promoting environmental sustainability in the poultry sector.

The Agricultural Technology Research Program (ATRP) at Georgia Tech exemplifies successful interdisciplinary collaboration. ATRP integrates expertise from mechanical, electrical, computer, environmental, and safety engineering to develop technologies that improve productivity, reduce costs, and enhance safety in the poultry industry. Similarly, the collaborative research initiative outlined by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) focuses on expanding PLF concepts (Zhao et al., 2024). This includes automated continuous monitoring of animals to assess health and welfare, incorporating automation, robotics, and energy/resource allocation to optimize poultry production systems. Furthermore, interdisciplinary research in agricultural engineering has been recognized as a vital approach to addressing agro-environmental issues. By integrating knowledge from various disciplines, researchers can develop comprehensive solutions to the environmental challenges faced by the poultry industry.

Poultry waste valorization strategies. Poultry litter is both a major environmental concern and an underutilized resource (Beausang et al., 2020). Transforming this waste into biofertilizers, biogas, and biochar presents a sustainable strategy to reduce GHG emissions while generating valuable byproducts. Anaerobic digestion of poultry manure can capture methane for energy use while lowering nitrous oxide and ammonia emissions (de Oliveira et al., 2020). Moreover, integrating biochar production from litter can improve soil carbon sequestration and reduce nutrient leaching (Yadav et al., 2023).

Advancements in microbial biotechnology also enable the targeted decomposition of manure, reducing odor and volatilization losses (Zhu et al., 2020). In regions where open dumping or land application of untreated litter is still common, research must prioritize scalable models of decentralized waste processing. Establishing mobile bioconversion units and region-specific composting protocols will support circular agriculture and minimize environmental contamination from excess nitrogen and phosphorus runoff.

Climate Resilience and Genetic Innovations in Poultry Production. Future poultry systems must also be resilient to climate-induced stressors, including heatwaves, disease outbreaks, and water scarcity. Selective breeding programs focused on heat tolerance, efficient feed conversion, and disease resistance are essential to maintain productivity under extreme conditions. Genomic tools and gene editing technologies (e.g., CRISPR) could accelerate development of poultry lines adapted to local climates with lower emissions per unit output. Additionally, precision nutrition strategies can be tailored to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus excretion while maintaining growth performance (Pomar et al., 2021). Studies showed that formulating diets with optimized amino acid profiles and phytase enzymes not only enhances digestibility but also minimizes GHG emissions from manure (Yitbarek et al., 2017; Adhikari et al., 2025). Climate-resilient housing systems with improved airflow, passive cooling, and humidity control will be crucial in mitigating heat stress and its productivity losses.

Empowering farmers for GHG mitigation. The success of GHG mitigation strategies in poultry depends on a well-informed farming community and technically skilled workforce. Training programs must extend beyond conventional extension services to include digital learning platforms, farmer field schools, and participatory research initiatives. Special focus should be placed on smallholder farmers and women poultry producers, who often lack access to formal education and support services. Developing region-specific curricula that cover sustainable practices, emission quantification, renewable energy use, and climate risk adaptation will empower farmers to make informed decisions. Capacity-building programs should also target husbandry specialists, veterinarians, feed formulators, and extension agents to ensure alignment across the entire value chain. International collaboration through twinning programs, regional research networks, and funding consortia can accelerate knowledge sharing and build institutional capacity in low- and middle-income countries.

Conclusion

The poultry industry, while essential to global food security, contributes significantly to environmental degradation through GHG emissions, resource consumption, and waste generation. This review has outlined a multi-pronged strategy to address these impacts through feed optimization, manure management, housing innovation, renewable energy integration, and advanced emission monitoring technologies. Each of these mitigation strategies, whether through precision nutrition, anaerobic digestion, biochar application, or renewable energy deployment, offers unique benefits in reducing emissions of CH₄, N₂O, and CO₂, while simultaneously enhancing farm productivity and sustainability. Furthermore, integrating circular economy principles such as recycling agricultural byproducts, cultivating microalgae, valorizing waste streams, and adopting closed-loop systems provides a transformative framework for sustainable poultry production. These practices not only reduce environmental footprints but also recover valuable nutrients and energy, contributing to a regenerative agricultural model. Innovations in carbon capture and microbial GHG mitigation, such as methane-oxidizing bacteria and microbial electrolysis cells, expand the technological landscape for emission control, especially under varying environmental and operational conditions. Despite these advancements, several barriers persist, including high capital investment, regulatory uncertainty, and limited technical accessibility for smallholder producers. Addressing these challenges will require coordinated efforts across research, policy, and industry domains, with a focus on financial incentives, scalable technologies, and farmer education. Future directions should emphasize interdisciplinary collaboration, data-driven environmental modeling, and policy frameworks that align climate mitigation with economic feasibility. Ultimately, transitioning poultry farming into a climate-resilient and circular economy is not only possible but also imperative. Through the adoption of innovative technologies and integrated management practices, the sector can move towards net-zero emissions while maintaining its critical role in feeding a growing global population.

Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process

During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used Grammarly, Quillbot, and copilots where necessary to check grammar, paraphrase sentences, and support clarity. After using these tools/services, the author(s) carefully reviewed, revised, and edited the content as required, and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the publication.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Prantic Kumar Goswami: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Md Salahuddin: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Ahmed A.A. Abdel-Wareth: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Supervision, Investigation, Data curation. Jayant Lohakare: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization.

Disclosures

The authors declare that there are no financial or personal relationships that could be perceived as influencing the research, results, or conclusions reported in this study.