Authors: Danya Ibrahim, Anfal M. Altahir, Da’ad Abdalla, Ibrahim Elkhidir, Tarteel Abdelmagid, Dalya SirElkhatim, Samah Hamid, Babekir Ali, Mohammed Tamim, Osama Isam, Zahra Abdelaziz, Zainab Mohammed, Reem Mohamed Ahmed, Awatif Adil, Rania Hassan Abdelgafour
Categories: Research, Adolescents, Anxiety, Depression, Emotional intelligence, Resilience
Source: Discover Mental Health
Authors: Danya Ibrahim, Anfal M. Altahir, Da’ad Abdalla, Ibrahim Elkhidir, Tarteel Abdelmagid, Dalya SirElkhatim, Samah Hamid, Babekir Ali, Mohammed Tamim, Osama Isam, Zahra Abdelaziz, Zainab Mohammed, Reem Mohamed Ahmed, Awatif Adil, Rania Hassan Abdelgafour
Adolescents are often sensitive to emotions and vulnerable to psychiatric issues, including suicidal tendencies. Emotional intelligence is believed to play a significant role in resilience, which acts as a protective factor for mental well-being. The study investigated the level of emotional intelligence, resilience, depression, and anxiety in Sudanese adolescents and the relationship between these factors.
A cross-sectional study was conducted among four high schools and included a total of 392 adolescents who completed a self-administered questionnaire consisting of the 30-item trait; Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire- short form (TEQ-SF), Brief Resilience Scale-6 (BRS-6) and Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4).
Emotional intelligence levels were moderate to high (M = 131.53 ± SD 22.16). While resilience levels were low to normal (M = 3.20 ± SD 0.51). Levels of anxiety were present in 89% of students while levels of depression were present in 78% of students and both were positively correlated (r = 0.540). Emotional intelligence and resilience were positively correlated (r = 0.272, p < 0.0005). Also, Resilience was positively correlated with levels of anxiety (r = 0.105) and the latter had a significant negative association with academic performance (r = − 0.102). Parents' status significantly contributed to predicting resilience levels (p-value = 0.011), with an unstandardized beta coefficient of 0.368. The mothers’ unemployment (r = − 0.100) and the father’s employment (r = 0.105) were significantly linked to lower anxiety levels.
The high prevalence of anxiety and depression levels among Sudanese adolescents is influenced by parental separation and employment. Improving students' mental health is crucial as it is linked to enhancing their academic performance. This underscores the importance of addressing mental well-being alongside educational outcomes.
The domains of mental and social well-being of adolescents continue to languish in neglect, particularly within Sudan and other developing nations [1, 2]. On the other hand, emotional intelligence (EI) correlates robustly with resilience, and the latter dynamically moderates mental well-being and life satisfaction among adolescents [3, 4]. An elevated Emotional Quotient (EQ) augments leadership capabilities and shapes adolescents' behavior and mental health outcomes [5–10] Adolescence, spanning the ages of 10 to 19, represents a critical phase marked by profound physical, emotional, and psychosocial transformations [11]. Lazarus defined emotion as a biological reaction adjusted to daily events and long-term labour, creating the urge to succeed and prosper [12]. However, emotion is positively directed by EI, which aids in understanding and managing one’s and others' emotions, utilizing them to guide planning, achieving, and motivating one’s life progress [13]. EI can be broken down into four distinct, yet related, capabilities; perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions, which encompasses diverse skills such as time management, communication, relationship-building, and community engagement [13, 14]. During adolescence, emotional intelligence advances with brain growth as the cortical and limbic systems become more responsive, generating emotional fluctuations [15]. The aforementioned biological concept of emotion stresses the preventive role of EI against undesired consequences of mental distress and aggression while fostering well-being, prosocial behavior, academic performance, and personal achievement. Resilience is to rise after being stressed, an endurance generated out of facing demanding life events and adversities, lowering their detrimental effects. Resilience is a product of inner capabilities such as self-esteem and an outer support system [16–18]. A study conducted among emerging adult students unveiled compelling correlations among resilience, self-esteem, extraversion, and neuroticism, highlighting the indispensable role of emotional equilibrium and self-confidence when confronting life's daunting challenges [19]. Mental health serves as the linchpin for holistic development, encompassing psychological and social well-being with the absence of emotional and behavioral disruptions. It emerges from the intricate interplay of individual personality, intimate relationships, biological factors, societal dynamics, and structural elements. The protective shield wielded by emotional intelligence and awareness extends its influence against destructive behaviors and substance use; by enhancing social integration, bolstering academic achievements, promoting coping strategies, and, significantly, forecasting the emergence of anxiety and depression among the youth [7, 20–22].
Emotional intelligence is inversely correlated with alcohol and tobacco use among middle school students, underscoring its protective role in navigating peer pressures [23]. Furthermore, emotional intelligence contributes to mental and social well-being, while resilience equips individuals to navigate life's challenges with fortitude. Hence EI and resilience might protect against elevated levels of depression and anxiety, especially during the transition to college, which have been linked to adverse academic outcomes, emphasizing the intricate relationship between mental health and academic performance [24]. In addition, EI and psychological well-being are influenced by parenting styles [25, 26], Kerr et al. highlighted the integral role of parental support in the development of neurocircuitry related to emotional regulation [27]. Furthermore, the synergy between parental support and EI bolsters resilience and buffers against depression [5, 28]. Conversely, inadequate parenting practices have been associated with poor negative outcomes such as higher rates of adolescent cigarette smoking at the school level [29]. The intricate developmental changes that naturally emerge during adolescence often entail challenges, including alterations in family and peer relationships, forming significant social and psychological stressors, potentially leading to turmoil [30]. Notably, physical punishment is prevalent within Sudanese families, yielding adverse consequences such as developmental issues, emotional immaturity, heightened emotional vulnerability, and school-related problems [31]. Hassan et al concluded that EI has indirectly influenced mental health problems among Iranian adolescents through spiritual intelligence [32].
It is disconcerting that mental stability remains an overlooked facet of life for Sudanese communities and is overshadowed by economic hardships and stigma. Investigations delving into the mental well-being of adolescents and exploring the mediating impact of emotional intelligence, especially within the context of African adolescents, remain conspicuously sparse [6, 25, 33, 34]. Consequently, any form of investment in this realm is paramount. Such investments are indispensable, serving as the crucible for enabling the youth to flourish, thereby unlocking their full potential in both personal and professional spheres [35]. Moreover, the early cultivation of emotional intelligence and resilience stands as a promising avenue for empowering the youth to lead and embrace a healthier lifestyle [36]. The promotion of resilience becomes imperative, compacting the routinely adverse reverberations of challenging circumstances [30]. In this study, we shed light on the mental health of Sudanese adolescents and its interrelation with emotional intelligence, and resilience. Sudanese adolescents in this study differ from other African studies in the religious and conservative cultural background [37] while compared to Middle Eastern populations in being constantly exposed to third-world staggering stressors (emotional deprivation, environmental, financial, and political constraints), which blocks psychological support and raises the mental health stigma but can potentiate resilience that results in further disregard to mental health making it a luxurious privilege [32]. The central objective of this study was to investigate the intricate associations between emotional intelligence, resilience, and mental health, framing this inquiry as an investment in fostering the prosperity of the Sudanese youth. This research endeavor extended further to propose recommendations aimed at fortifying individuals against preventable psychological challenges. This initiative was essential given the current deficiency of intervention strategies in addressing these critical issues in Sudan.
A sample of 392 Sudanese high school students (males = 182; female = 210) were recruited in the study from four secondary schools in the Khartoum locality, Khartoum state, Sudan in 2022. The sample size was 386, using the formula n = z2(p*q)/d2, n = sample size (Z = The standard deviation for a confidence interval of 95% = 1.96, P = The proportion taken at 0.5 as there were no published data in the Khartoum locality, q = the frequency of non-occurrence of an event = 1 − P = 1 − 0.5 = 0.5, d = level of precision 0.5). A 10% non-response rate was added. A multistage sampling technique was used. Cluster sampling was used in the 1st stage. The study population was clustered into 414 clusters as each school was considered a cluster. Four clusters (schools) were selected using simple random sampling. In the 2nd stage, each cluster was stratified by grade into 3 grades involving all classes in each school, and in the 3rd stage, systematic random sampling was used to choose the selected number of students from each class. The participants completed the survey during regularly scheduled class periods using a hard copy and an online Google-designed questionnaire in Arabic and English. A brief explanation of the study and the questionnaire was provided verbally to all the participants, and written consent was obtained from each participant. Students were notified they could discontinue at any point, and those who did were excluded from the final sample (n = 2).
10 items of socio-demographic data (age, gender, ethnicity, general academic performance, high school level, daily allowance, family size, parents’ educational level, parents’ employment, parents’ status, parents' civil status) were used to describe the participants' characteristics.
Comprised of 30 questions to assess EI formed of 4 factors and 15 facets. Factors include sociability, emotionality, well-being, and self-control while facets incorporate adaptability, self-esteem, assertiveness, low impulsiveness, stress management, emotion regulation, emotion management, trait empathy, trait happiness, trait optimism, social motivation, social awareness, emotion perception, emotion expression, and relationships. Every facet was represented by 2 questions, and each question was rated from 1 to 7 (1 = completely disagree,…,7 = completely agree). The final scores were interpreted as follows; below 90 scores (low), 90–110 scores (moderate), and more than 110 scores (high) [38, 39].
Brief resilience scale-6 (BRS-6) is an instrument of 6 items, which operationalizes resilience as a skill of rapid recovery following unpleasant events comprised of six questions, each question is answered in a Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree,…5 = strongly agree). It is a reliable mean of assessing resilience as the ability to recover from stress and may provide unique and important information about individuals coping with health-related stressors [36, 37]. Scores were interpreted as follows; 1.00–2.99 (low), 3.00–4.30 (normal), 4.31–5.00 (high) [40, 41].
An ultra-brief and accurate measurement of core symptoms/signs of depression and anxiety has shown to be a valid brief screening tool [42, 43]. Each item scored from 0 to 3 and the total score is the sum of the four items as 0–2 (normal), 3–5 (mild), 6–8 (moderate), and 9–12 (severe).
Data was processed and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 25; descriptive and inferential statistics were applied. Given that independent variables are age, gender, ethnicity, general academic performance, high school level, daily allowance, family size, parents’ educational level, parent’s civil status, and employment. Emotional Intelligence, Resilience, depression, and anxiety were dependent variables. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity.
The mean age of the study participants was 15 ± 1.3 years; 182 (46.4%) males and 210 (53.6%) females, and 37.5% of the participants studied in governmental schools while 62.5% were in private schools (Table 1). Most of the respondents (50.5%) take 500 pounds as a daily allowance. 80.3% of responders indicated that their family size is less than eight.Table 1Socio-demographic characteristics of the participantsVariableN (%)Type of educationGovernmental147 (37.5)Private245 (62.5)GenderFemale210 (53.6)Male182 (46.4)General academic performanceFail3 (0.8)Pass50 (12.8)Good58 (14.8)Very good145 (37.0)Excellent136 (34.7)Academic levelJunior127 (32.4)Sophomore119 (30.4)Senior135 (34.4)Senior repeat11 (2.8)Mother’s educational levelHigher degrees56 (14.3)Bachelor degree185 (47.2)High school diploma or equivalent95 (24.2)Less than a high school diploma33 (8.4)Illiterate23 (5.9)Father’s educational levelHigher degrees52 (13.3)Bachelor degree229 (58.4)High school diploma or equivalent70 (17.9)Less than a high school diploma27 (6.9)Illiterate14 (3.6)Mother employmentEmployed152 (38.8)Unemployed240 (61.2)Father employmentEmployed372 (94.9)Unemployed20 (5.1)Parent statusMarried368 (93.9)Separated24 (6.1)If your parents do not live with you in the same house, whom do you live with?Other than parents16 (4.1)The father18 (4.6)The mother67 (17.1)
Emotional intelligence levels were normal to high (M 131.53 ± SD 22.16) with a minimum score of 60 and a maximum of 206. On the other hand, resilience levels were low to normal (M 3.20 ± SD 0.51) with a minimum score of 1.67 and a maximum of 4.50.
Using Pearson’s correlation analysis, EI and resilience were weakly positively associated [r (390) = 0.272, p-value = 0.01] i.e., high levels of emotional intelligence were associated with higher levels of resilience, and vice versa, remarking that positive correlation is almost similar across both genders as shown in Fig. 1.Fig. 1A scatterplot displaying the relationship between emotional intelligence and resilience scores with regard to gender shows a positive correlation (r = 0.272)
Emotional intelligence had no direct significant relationship with levels of anxiety and depression or academic scoring. Conversely, resilience was positively correlated with levels of anxiety [r (390) = 0.105, p-value = 0.05] i.e., the more resilient an adolescent was, the more anxious he/she was. No relationship was found between resilience and levels of depression. A positive correlation was identified between levels of anxiety and depression (r = 0.540). Among the 392 participants, academic performance had a significant negative correlation with levels of anxiety (r = − 0.102) i.e., the more anxious adolescents were, the lower their academic performances (Table 2).Table 2A Pearson correlation analysis of emotional intelligence, anxiety, depression, and resilienceVariableCorrelationEI AnxietyDepressionResilienceEIPearson Correlation10.0830.0560.272^^Sig. (2-tailed)0.1000.2650.000AnxietyPearson Correlation0.08310.540^^0.105^^Sig. (2-tailed)0.1000.0000.037DepressionPearson Correlation0.0560.540^^10.090Sig. (2-tailed)0.2650.0000.075ResiliencePearson Correlation0.272^^0.105^^0.0901Sig. (2-tailed)0.0000.0370.075Academic performancePearson Correlation− 0.039− 0.102^*^− 0.0070.055Sig. (2-tailed)0.4430.0440.8910.281EI emotional intelligence **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2- tailed). * Correlation is significant at P-value 0.05 or less
Levels of anxiety were positively correlated with the student's age [r (390) = 0.166, p-value = 0.01], the father’s condition [r (390) = 0.105, p-value = 0.05], and the father’s occupation (r = 0.105). Higher levels of anxiety were indicated when the father was divorced, widowed, or deceased or in cases of the father’s unemployment. Conversely, levels of anxiety were negatively associated with the mother’s occupation [r (390) = − 0.100, p-value = 0.05], indicating that the mother’s unemployment was related to lower anxiety levels. Parents’ marital status was positively correlated with resilience [r (390) = 0.127, p-value = 0.05] revealing higher resilience with those whose parents are separated. Also, age was positively correlated with levels of depression [r (390) = 0.106, p-value = 0.05], while emotional intelligence was not associated with any of these factors (Table 3).Table 3A Pearson correlation analysis of the emotional intelligence and resilience scores, anxiety and depression levels with age, education type, and parents’ profileVariableCorrelation ResilienceAnxietyDepressionEIAge Pearson Correlation0.040 0.166^^0.106^*^0.005 Sig. (2-tailed)0.429 0.001 0.036 0.919 The daily allowance Pearson Correlation0.067 0.137^^0.031 0.098 Sig. (2-tailed)0.188 0.007 0.537 0.053 Father's condition Pearson Correlation− 0.023 0.105^^0.051 0.051 Sig. (2-tailed)0.655 0.037 0.316 0.310 Parents' status Pearson Correlation0.127^^0.014 0.047 0.028 Sig. (2-tailed) 0.012 0.778 0.358 0.581 Mother's job Pearson Correlation− 0.052 − 0.100^^− 0.088 0.042 Sig. (2-tailed)0.303 0.644 0.081 0.411 Father's job Pearson Correlation 0.015 0.106^^0.096 0.088 Sig. (2-tailed)0.767 0.036 0.059 0.081 EI: emotional intelligence. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
A total of 337 (86%) adolescents had high emotional intelligence scores, about two-thirds of the participants had normal resilience and one-third had low resilience levels as presented in Fig. 2, respectively. Also, 349 students (89%) suffered from mild to moderate levels of anxiety and 305 students (78%) had mild to moderate levels of depression (Fig. 3).Fig. 2The levels of Emotional Intelligence and resilience among Sudanese AdolescentsFig. 3Screening of signs/symptoms of anxiety and depression among Sudanese adolescents
Our research findings presented three distinctive observations; firstly, no significant correlation was found between emotional intelligence (EI) and levels of anxiety or depression. Secondly, anxiety exhibited a positive association with resilience and daily allowance, which contrasted with previous studies indicating an inverse relationship between anxiety and resilience [44, 45]. Thirdly, our findings diverged from studies linking financial hardship to poor mental health status among adolescents [46, 47]. This inconsistency may be attributed to variances in measurement methodologies or factors such as distinct parenting styles, quality of parent–child attachment, prior mental health experiences, or peer influences [47–51]. Consistent with existing literature, our study found that parental education was unrelated to neither mild or moderate anxiety levels [52]. However, it reaffirmed the connection between parental separation and adolescents with mild or moderate anxiety levels, solidifying the notion that an unstable nurturing environment significantly impacts mental well-being [53]. This aligned with previous studies illustrating the role of parental education and family conflict in shaping psychological well-being [54–56]. Increased levels of anxiety were associated with maternal employment and parental unemployment. Such findings can be explained by the cultural norms of Sudanese society and the social view regarding the qualities of a good mother or a good father. Increased levels of anxiety may be attributed to decreased communication between the mother and her children which is affected by the mother’s limited or diminished presence at home due to her occupation. In contrast, a father’s presence at home due to his unemployment would distort the cultural image of a good father who is traditionally seen as “hardworking, tolerant, brave, dominant, resolute” and should be the primary provider to be the ultimate role model for his sons [31]. Despite paternal unemployment intensifying anxiety levels, financial hardship did not affect the adolescents' mental status for the structure of the Sudanese community is centered around communal interdependence and collective responsibility for the youth so that distant relatives provide financial assistance in the setting of parental unemployment [31, 53].
We found that Sudanese adolescents had normal to high levels of emotional intelligence (EI). Moreover, our findings indicated a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and resilience, consistent with Sharma's findings highlighting the significant relationship between resilience and emotional intelligence [57]. Remarkably, unlike prior studies, our research did not establish a significant association between parental education and adolescents' emotional intelligence [58]. Additionally, aligning with the literature, resilience significantly mediates the relationship between the various dimensions of emotional intelligence and perceived stress, operating as a negative predictor of stress [59]. In contrast to the existing literature, our study did not identify a direct link between emotional intelligence and anxiety and depression levels [22, 60]. Our results also challenged studies implicating emotional dysregulation as a risk factor for mild and moderate anxiety levels among youth and those highlighting emotional intelligence as a protective factor against psychiatric morbidities and suicide [61, 62]. This deviation may be attributed to the challenging family conditions experienced by many adolescents, including poverty, violence, substance abuse, family discord, and personal illnesses. These adverse conditions can hinder normal intellectual, social, and emotional development, consequently fostering anxiety and impeding their full potential, especially in the context of Sudan as a third-world country. However, it is noteworthy that despite these challenges, many children exhibit resilience [63]. To support resilience in children, it is essential to understand both environmental risk factors and protective factors [64].
Despite the widely recognized gender difference in the prevalence of anxiety, our analysis did not reveal any gender disparities in the aforementioned results, contrary to the findings of Ostrov et al., which outlined how different genders manifest psychological disturbances differently. Boys tended to exhibit acting-out behaviors, such as theft, running away, or substance abuse, while girls displayed inward-focused symptoms like depression and anxiety [65]. Furthermore, our study identified an inverse correlation between mild and moderate anxiety levels and academic performance, consistent with the conception that students with lower test anxiety levels tend to achieve higher academic results compared to those with higher test anxiety [66]. However, our results differed from a study conducted in Spain revealing moderate levels of anxiety boosting academic performance. But, findings such as the substantial association between depression and anxiety levels and academic performance, aligned with our research [67]. Importantly, our study did not find a significant inverse association between mild and moderate depression levels and academic performance, which contradicts the known depression effect on academic performance. Depressive symptoms reported can be attributed to the pubertal hormonal changes and perceived self-image among adolescents [68]. Furthermore, our results supported existing evidence that depression and anxiety levels tend to increase with age [69, 70].
In conclusion, it is imperative to delve into the underlying causes of the reported levels of anxiety and depression prevalent among secondary school students. Such an investigation might facilitate early detection, enabling appropriate care and elevating academic performance among students. In addition, future studies in Sudan should also focus on the factors that promote resilience among adolescents and the impact of the parenting style on resilience and mental health status. Moreover, cultivating higher levels of emotional intelligence in adolescents can equip them with increased resilience, which, in turn, serves as an invaluable asset across various facets of their current and future lives.
Recommendations for addressing these mental health challenges encompass the integration of comprehensive psychological counseling services and continuous monitoring as integral components of secondary school programs. Furthermore, establishing a supportive educational environment, characterized by nurturing student–teacher relationships, is paramount [71]. This study underscores the importance of developing a tailored Sudanese model to assess emotional intelligence and resilience among adolescents and future studies should focus on exploring additional risk factors contributing to anxiety and depression.
It is essential to prioritize psychological interventions targeting emotional intelligence and resilience to enhance adolescents' emotional well-being and mitigate stress and aggression [34, 59, 72]. Various strategies rooted in cognitive development, the influence of peer interactions, and transitional phases during adolescence offer promising avenues for peer and familial support [1].
The study's strengths encompassed its pioneering exploration of mental health issues among Sudanese adolescents, shedding light on the evolving concepts of emotional intelligence and resilience within this vulnerable demographic. In addition, our sampling method of multistage cluster systematic random sampling minimizes sample selection bias. However, it is crucial to acknowledge potential limitations, such as the absence of stress measurement within the mental health assessment. Also, parental separation was observed to influence the participants' anxiety levels, but other factors were not included in the study, such as the quality of parenting style, parent–child relationships, or parental mental health, which could have impacted the reported results. Furthermore, the use of self-report measures potentiates bias in the assessment of the study variables and the cross-sectional nature of the study limits its generalizability. Furthermore, the absence of similar national-level studies underscores the need for further research to deepen our understanding of these complex issues.